The Human Element in Cybersecurity: Lessons from SOF Truths and the OODA Loop
In today’s digital age, where technology reigns supreme, it’s easy to get caught up in the allure of automation, artificial intelligence, and the latest cybersecurity gadgets.
However, as we navigate the complex landscape of cybersecurity, it’s important to remember that humans are the linchpin in this battle against digital adversaries. This article explores the significance of the human element in cybersecurity, drawing inspiration from the SOF Truths (Special Operations Forces Truths) and the OODA Loop (Observe, Orient, Decide, Act).
The SOF Truths, or Untied States Special Operations Command – Special Operations Forces Truths, are a set of principles that highlight key aspects of special operations and the roles of Special Operations Forces (SOF). These truths provide insights into the nature of special operations and underscore the principles that guide the work of SOF personnel.
FIRST Special Interest Groups (SIGs)
Special Interest Groups exist to provide a forum where FIRST Members can discuss topics of common interest to the Incident Response community. A SIG is a group of individuals composed of FIRST Members and invited parties, typically coming together to explore an area of interest or specific technology area, with a goal of collaborating and sharing expertise and experiences to address common challenges.
1. Humans Are More Important Than Software
The first of the SOF Truths tells us that when it comes to cybersecurity, humans take precedence over Software. The right team of skilled individuals can effectively safeguard networks, clouds, servers, and data, even with limited technological resources. On the flip side, no amount of cutting-edge Software can fully compensate for a lack of knowledgeable and capable personnel.
2. Quality Over Quantity
The second truth emphasizes that in cybersecurity, quality is more valuable than quantity. A small, well-trained, and well-led team can outperform a larger force, especially when dealing with the intricate and ever-evolving tactics of cyber adversaries.
3. SOF Cannot Be Mass Produced
Building on the SOF Truths, it’s important to recognize that cybersecurity expertise cannot be hurried. Just as it takes years to train Special Operations Forces to the highest level of proficiency, it also requires intensive training and experience to develop cybersecurity professionals who can tackle specialized missions effectively.
4. Competence Cannot Be Created After Emergencies
Preparedness is key in both Special Operations and cybersecurity. In the digital realm, waiting until an emergency arises to create competent and capable cybersecurity teams is not a viable strategy. Cyber threats are constant, and being ready to respond promptly requires maintaining well-trained teams during peacetime.
5. Dependency on Non-SOF Support
While Special Operations Forces are highly skilled and adaptable, they also rely on support from other branches of the military, such as the Air Force, Army, Marine Corps, and Navy. In cybersecurity, the collaboration of various professionals, including engineers, technicians, and intelligence analysts, is crucial to enhance the effectiveness of cyber defense.
6. OODA Loop in Cybersecurity
In addition to the SOF Truths, the OODA Loop concept, which stands for Observe, Orient, Decide, Act. This decision-making process is highly relevant in cybersecurity. Observing and understanding the adversary’s actions, orienting oneself to the evolving threat landscape, making informed decisions, and taking rapid action are fundamental in the battle against cyber threats.
In conclusion, the human element remains at the core of cybersecurity. While automation and technology are invaluable tools, they cannot replace the insights, adaptability, and expertise of cybersecurity professionals. As we strive to protect our digital assets and information, let’s remember the timeless wisdom of the SOF Truths and the agility of the OODA Loop.
Don’t get fooled, plugin in ChatGPT into a existing Software isn’t going to be a game changer, as per the Gartner AI Hyper Cycle.
In terms of looking a solution to this problem, FIRST SIG might be a good start.
Amazon Security Lake: A Revolutionary Solution for Enhanced Data Protection
Avoid common pitfalls and maximize the potential of Amazon Security Lake for robust data protection and threat detection.
Amazon Web Services (AWS) has recently announced the general availability of Amazon Security Lake, a groundbreaking solution that offers enhanced data protection capabilities. In this blog, we will explore the key features and benefits of Amazon Security Lake and discuss how it can revolutionize data security practices for organizations.
Amazon Security Lake is a comprehensive security analytics and threat detection solution offered by AWS. It enables organizations to centralize, analyze, and act upon security data from various sources, such as AWS CloudTrail logs, Amazon VPC Flow Logs, and AWS Config rules. By leveraging machine learning and advanced analytics, Security Lake empowers organizations to gain valuable insights into their security posture and detect potential threats in real-time.
Key Features and Benefits:
Centralized Security Data Repository: Amazon Security Lake acts as a centralized repository for all security-related data, making it easier for organizations to manage and analyze vast amounts of security logs. With this unified approach, organizations can seamlessly integrate security data from various sources, eliminating data silos and enhancing visibility into their overall security landscape.
Real-time Threat Detection: By employing advanced machine learning algorithms, Security Lake enables organizations to proactively detect security threats in real-time. It continuously monitors and analyzes security logs, identifying anomalous activities, unauthorized access attempts, and potential security breaches. This allows organizations to respond promptly and effectively to mitigate risks and prevent data breaches.
Scalable and Flexible Architecture: Built on AWS’s highly scalable infrastructure, Security Lake is designed to accommodate organizations of all sizes. It can effortlessly handle large volumes of security data, ensuring that organizations can scale their security operations without compromising performance. Additionally, Security Lake offers flexible deployment options, allowing organizations to choose between fully managed services or self-managed implementations based on their specific requirements.
Simplified Investigation and Compliance: Amazon Security Lake provides powerful search and query capabilities, enabling security teams to investigate incidents and conduct forensic analysis efficiently. The solution offers pre-built dashboards, visualizations, and security analytics tools, making it easier for organizations to gain actionable insights from their security data. Moreover, Security Lake assists organizations in meeting regulatory compliance requirements by providing pre-configured compliance rules and facilitating security audits.
Integration with AWS Security Services: As part of the AWS ecosystem, Security Lake seamlessly integrates with other AWS security services, such as Amazon GuardDuty and AWS Security Hub. This integration strengthens an organization’s overall security posture by leveraging the combined power of multiple security tools, improving threat detection and response capabilities.
Step-by-step guide,
We will walk you through the process of setting up Amazon Security Lake.
Step 1: Sign in to the AWS Management Console: To begin, sign in to the AWS Management Console using your AWS account credentials. If you don’t have an AWS account, you can create one by following the instructions on the AWS website.
Step 2: Navigate to the Amazon Security Lake Console: Once you are logged in, navigate to the Amazon Security Lake Console. You can find the console by searching for “Security Lake” in the AWS services search bar, or you can access it directly via the following URL: https://console.aws.amazon.com/security-lake/.
Step 3: Create a Security Lake: In the Security Lake console, click on the “Create Security Lake” button to start the setup process. You will be prompted to provide a name for your Security Lake and choose a region where it will be deployed. Select the appropriate region based on your organization’s requirements and click “Next.”
Step 4: Configure Data Sources: In this step, you will configure the data sources for your Security Lake. Security Lake supports various AWS data sources, such as CloudTrail logs, VPC Flow Logs, and AWS Config rules. Choose the data sources that you want to integrate with Security Lake by enabling them and providing the necessary permissions. Follow the on-screen instructions to configure each data source.
Step 5: Set Up Data Ingestion: Next, you will set up data ingestion for your Security Lake. Select the desired method of data ingestion based on your organization’s needs. You can choose between real-time ingestion using Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose or batch ingestion using Amazon S3. Configure the necessary settings for data ingestion, such as the destination S3 bucket or Kinesis Firehose delivery stream.
Step 6: Enable Data Analysis: Once the data ingestion is set up, you can enable data analysis for your Security Lake. Security Lake uses machine learning algorithms and advanced analytics to detect security threats and anomalies in real-time. Enable the desired analysis features, such as anomaly detection or specific AWS service integrations, to enhance your security capabilities.
Step 7: Configure Security Lake Settings: In this step, you can configure additional settings for your Security Lake. This includes defining retention periods for the ingested data, setting up access controls and permissions, and configuring notifications for security events. Adjust these settings according to your organization’s compliance and security requirements.
Step 8: Review and Create the Security Lake: Before creating the Security Lake, review all the configuration settings you have made. Ensure that the selected data sources, data ingestion methods, analysis features, and settings align with your organization’s needs. Once you are satisfied, click “Create Security Lake” to initiate the creation process.
Step 9: Monitor and Manage Your Security Lake: After the Security Lake is created, you can monitor and manage it from the Security Lake console. Utilize the pre-built dashboards, visualizations, and security analytics tools provided by Security Lake to gain valuable insights into your security posture. Continuously monitor the alerts and notifications generated by the system to promptly respond to potential security threats.
Gotchas
When setting up Amazon Security Lake, there are a few potential “gotchas” or challenges that you may encounter. Being aware of these pitfalls can help you navigate the setup process more effectively. Here are some important considerations:
Data ingestion limitations: Amazon Security Lake supports various data sources, but each has its own limitations. For example, CloudTrail logs have a maximum size limit per file, and VPC Flow Logs have a limit on the number of records per file. Ensure that you understand and plan for these limitations to avoid potential issues with data ingestion.
Permissions and access control: Configuring proper permissions and access control is crucial for Security Lake. Ensure that you grant the necessary permissions to the AWS services and resources involved in data ingestion and analysis. Additionally, make sure that you set up appropriate access controls for users and roles to prevent unauthorized access to your Security Lake.
Data storage costs: While Security Lake provides a powerful solution for data analysis, keep in mind that storing large volumes of security data can incur additional costs. Be mindful of the storage costs associated with S3 buckets or Kinesis Data Firehose delivery streams, especially if you have high data ingestion rates or long retention periods. Regularly review and optimize your data storage practices to manage costs efficiently.
Performance considerations: The performance of Security Lake can be influenced by factors such as data ingestion rates, analysis complexity, and the size of your security data. If you have a high volume of data or complex analysis requirements, you may need to carefully allocate resources and optimize your Security Lake configuration to ensure smooth and efficient operation.
Security Lake limitations: While Security Lake offers robust security analytics capabilities, it is important to understand its limitations. For example, Security Lake may not cover all types of security logs or support custom log formats. Evaluate your specific security needs and verify that Security Lake aligns with your requirements.
Monitoring and alerts: Monitoring the alerts and notifications generated by Security Lake is crucial for timely threat detection and response. However, it’s essential to set up effective monitoring practices to avoid missing critical alerts or being overwhelmed by false positives. Regularly review and fine-tune your alerting mechanisms to ensure they are tuned to your organization’s security priorities.
Integration challenges: Security Lake integrates with other AWS security services, such as GuardDuty and Security Hub. While this integration enhances your overall security capabilities, it may require additional configuration and management. Be prepared to address any potential challenges related to integration, including service compatibility, data sharing, and event correlation.
Compliance considerations: If your organization operates in regulated industries or needs to comply with specific security standards, ensure that Security Lake meets the necessary compliance requirements. While Security Lake provides built-in compliance rules and tools, additional configurations or customization may be necessary to align with your specific compliance needs.
Remember that it is crucial to consult AWS documentation, user guides, and seek support from AWS experts to address any specific challenges or concerns you may encounter during the setup and configuration of Amazon Security Lake.
2.NSA NCCP Course: Digital Forensics –https://lnkd.in/gM7YDxyH -Modules Include: Introduction to Digital Forensics, First Response and Investigation, Digital Forensics Investigation Steps, Introduction to File System, Memory/Live Forensics, Tools for Filesystem Investigation
3.NSA NCCP Course: Computer Security –https://lnkd.in/g6EDzaYE -Modules Include: Intro to Computer Security, User Authentication, Cryptographic Tools, Malware, DOS Attacks, Buffer Overflow, Intrusion Detection, Access Controls
4. NSA NCCP Course: Machine Learning for Cybersecurity –https://lnkd.in/gc95XzUX -Modules Include: Creating a Safe Lab Environment, File Formats, The Windows API, Automated Sandboxes, Monitoring Tools, Malware Delivery Mechanisms, Basic Analysis Techniques, Detecting Packers and Code Obfuscation.
This post is inspired by all the hard working DFIR, and more broadly security professionals, who have put in the hard yards over the years to discuss in depth digital forensics and incident response….
Disclaimer
This page contains a variety of commands and concepts which are known through experience, higher education, tutorials, online blogs, YouTube Videos, professional training, reading the manual, and more. All references to original posts or material will aim to be documented in the ‘Special Thanks’ section.
This is not designed as a manual on how to perform DFIR, and serves only as a quick reference sheet for commands, tools, and common items of interest when performing Incident Response. If you need to undertake Digital Forensics for legal proceedings, seek specialist advice as this requires more rigor around Identification, Preservation, Collection, Examination, Analysis, and Presentation of findings.
Artifact locations
A number of forensic artifacts are known for a number of operating systems.
A large number of these are covered on the Digital Forensics Artifact Repository, and can be ingested both by humans and systems given the standard YAML format.
One action you can take is to parse this for items of interest and then directly spit out areas for investigation. For example if you have the PowerShell ConvertFrom-Yaml module, you can query this directly.
DumpIt.exe /O [LOCATION]
- Used for getting a memory crash file (Useful for analysis with both windbg and volatility)
DumpIt.exe /O [LOCATION]\mem.raw /T RAW
- Used for getting a raw memory dump (Considered a legacy format)
These can be bundled with PSEXEC to execute on a remote PC; however, this will copy the file to the remote PC for executing. There’s limitations if the tool requires other drivers or files to execute (such as RamCapture). An example command may be:
psexec \\remotepcname -c DumpIt.exe
Powershell
Where the Microsoft Storage namespace is available (known not to be available in Win7), PowerShell can be used to invoke a native live memory dump. Special thanks to Grzegorz Tworek – 0gtweet.
get-computerinfo
echo %DATE% %TIME%
date /t
time /t
reg query "HKLM\System\CurrentControlSet\Control\TimeZoneInformation"
systeminfo
wmic computersystem list full
wmic /node:localhost product list full /format:csv
wmic softwarefeature get name,version /format:csv
wmic softwareelement get name,version /format:csv
reg query "HKLM\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\CurrentVersion" /s
echo %PATH%
(gci env:path|Select -exp Value).split(';')
SET
wmic bootconfig get /all /format:List
wmic computersystem get name, domain, manufacturer, model, numberofprocessors,primaryownername,username,roles,totalphysicalmemory /format:list
wmic timezone get Caption, Bias, DaylightBias, DaylightName, StandardName
wmic recoveros get /all /format:List
wmic os get /all /format:list
wmic partition get /all /format:list
wmic logicaldisk get /all /format:list
wmic diskdrive get /all /format:list
fsutil fsinfo drives
$env
Get-Variable
(psinfo requires sysinternals psinfo.exe):
psinfo -accepteula -s -h -d
Obtain list of all files on a computer
tree C:\ /F > output.txt
dir C:\ /A:H /-C /Q /R /S /X
User and admin information
whoami
whoami /user
net users
net localgroup administrators
net group /domain [groupname]
net user /domain [username]
wmic sysaccount
wmic useraccount get name,SID
wmic useraccount list
Logon information
wmic netlogin list /format:List
Get-WmiObject Win32_LoggedOnUser
Get-WmiObject win32_logonsession
query user
qwinsta
klist sessions
klist -li
NT Domain/Network Client Information
wmic ntdomain get /all /format:List
wmic netclient get /all /format:List
nltest /trusted_domains
Firewall Information
netsh Firewall show state
netsh advfirewall firewall show rule name=all dir=in type=dynamic
netsh advfirewall firewall show rule name=all dir=out type=dynamic
netsh advfirewall firewall show rule name=all dir=in type=static
netsh advfirewall firewall show rule name=all dir=out type=static
User Registry (NTUSER.DAT HIVE) – Commonly located at:
C:\Users\[username]
*Note: These are setup for querying the current users registry only (HKCU), to query others you will need to load them from the relevant NTUSER.DAT file and then query them.
Don’t be afraid to use “findstr” or ‘/f’ to find entries of interest, for example file extensions which may also invoke malicious executables when run, or otherwise.
Note: This not only contains services, but also malicious drivers which may run at startup (these are in the form of “.sys” files and are generally loaded from here: \SystemRoot\System32\drivers)
Note: This exists below the OS in the Master Boot Record or Volume Boot Record. The system must be booted through Advanced Startup Options with a Command Prompt, or through a recovery cd.
bootrec /FIXMBR
bootrec /FIXBOOT
Extra: If your boot configuration data is missing or contains errors the below can fix this.
bootrec /REBUILDBCD
If you’re thinking of a bootkit more as a rootkit (malicious system drivers) you can go with the below.
Note: These keys specify what services are run in Safe Mode. Sometimes they’ll be modified by malware to ensure rootkits can still function in Safe Mode.
Note: This is incredibly rare, and doesn’t have an easy detection/remediation mechanism. Using the Windows CheckDisk utility, System File Checker, or Deployment Image Servicing and Management may assist but isn’t guaranteed.
Note: This involves replacing legitimate components with malicious ones, and as such the legitimate components will likely no longer function. If you have a detection based on DLLHost.exe with /Processid:{xyz}, you can match xyz with the CLSID (COM Class Object) or AppID mentioned below to check for any malicious EXE or DLL.
Note: If not examining the registry directly and looking at services in a ‘live’ capacity you may encounter ‘hidden services’ which aren’t shown due to a SDDL applied to them. You can find solely these services using the following (Special thanks – Josh Wright)
ls C:\Windows\System32\WindowsPowerShell\v1.0\Profile.ps1
ls C:\Windows\System32\WindowsPowerShell\v1.0\Microsoft.*Profile.ps1
ls C:\Windows\System32\WindowsPowerShell\v1.0\Microsoft.*Profile.ps1
gci -path "C:\Users\*\Documents\PowerShell\Profile.ps1"
gci -path "C:\Users\*\Documents\PowerShell\Microsoft.*Profile.ps1"
The Master File Table is an incredibly important artifact; however, this can only be read or obtained using low level disk reading. This contains an entry for every file or directory on the filesystem including metadata about these files, and may provide evidence on files which have been removed (MFT entries marked as ‘free’). More information can be found on Microsoft Docs
Determine Timestomping
Within the Master File Table (Located at the Win root) there are 2 elements, $STANDARD_INFORMATION and $FILE_NAME, both of which have values for a file being created, modified, accessed and written.
These are known as MACB times (Modified, Accessed, Changed, Birth). The $STANDARD_INFORMATION element can be modified from a malicious process, but the $FILE_NAME element is left intact and cannot without some extra trickery.
These discrepancies generally indicate Timestomping with the $FILE_NAME entry being the source of truth. This can be determined by obtaining the MFT (e.g. using a tool such as Rawcopy), and comparing timestamps on the file (e.g. using a tool such as MFTExplorer).
Note: Load in hives and add particular SID to prevent users running named files, helps prevent for example your IIS service account from running cmd.exe or powershell.exe
The most important aspect is to locate and remove the CommandLineEventConsumer. This has the malicious command stored within the value ‘CommandLineTemplate’. The below example searches for commands that contain ‘powershell’.
The below represent registry keys which make it more difficult for Mimikatz to work. Modification of these keys may indicate an attacker trying to execute Mimikatz within an environment if they were set to their more secure state. Always test prior to changing registry keys such as these in a production environment to ensure nothing breaks.
HKLM\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\SecurityProviders\WDigest
- “UseLogonCredential” should be 0 to prevent the password in LSASS/WDigest
HKLM\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\Lsa
- “RunAsPPL” should be set to dword:00000001 to enable LSA Protection which prevents non-protected processes from interacting with LSASS.
- Mimikatz can remove these flags using a custom driver called mimidriver.
- This uses the command **!+** and then **!processprotect /remove /process:lsass.exe** by default so tampering of this registry key can be indicative of Mimikatz activity.
Some techniques may involve loading lsasrv.dll or wdigest.dll to extract credentials and may be caught if this is loaded legitimately using:
tasklist /m wdigest.dll
tasklist /m lsasrv.dll
You may be able to detect changes to the below registry keys which can be used to load an arbitrary DLL and extract credentials, more information from Adam Chester
[Alias(“CN”,”__SERVER”,”Computer”,”CNAME”)] [string[]]$ComputerName=$env:ComputerName, [string]$Key = “HKLM”, [string]$SubKey ) function Get-RegKeyLastWriteTime { <# .SYNOPSIS Retrieves the last write time of the supplied registry key .DESCRIPTION The Registry data that a hive stores in containers are called cells. A cell can hold a key, a value, a security descriptor, a list of subkeys, or a list of key values. Get-RegKeyLastWriteTime retrieves the LastWriteTime through a pointer to the FILETIME structure that receives the time at which the enumerated subkey was last written. Values do not contain a LastWriteTime property, but changes to child values update the parent keys lpftLastWriteTime. The LastWriteTime is updated when a key is created, modified, accessed, or deleted. .PARAMETER ComputerName Computer name to query .PARAMETER Key Root Key to query HKCR – Symbolic link to HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE \SOFTWARE \Classes. HKCU – Symbolic link to a key under HKEY_USERS representing a user’s profile hive. HKLM – Placeholder with no corresponding physical hive. This key contains other keys that are hives. HKU – Placeholder that contains the user-profile hives of logged-on accounts. HKCC – Symbolic link to the key of the current hardware profile .PARAMETER SubKey Registry Key to query .EXAMPLE Get-RegKeyLastWriteTime -ComputerName testwks -Key HKLM -SubKey Software .EXAMPLE Get-RegKeyLastWriteTime -ComputerName testwks1,testwks2 -SubKey Software .EXAMPLE Get-RegKeyLastWriteTime -SubKey Software\Microsoft .EXAMPLE “testwks1″,”testwks2” | Get-RegKeyLastWriteTime -SubKey Software\Microsoft ` \Windows\CurrentVersion .NOTES NAME: Get-RegKeyLastWriteTime AUTHOR: Shaun Hess VERSION: 1.0 LASTEDIT: 01JUL2011 LICENSE: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) .LINK http://www.shaunhess.com #> [CmdletBinding()] param(
tasklist -v
wmic process list full /format:csv
wmic process get name,parentprocessid,processid /format:csv
wmic process get ExecutablePath,processid /format:csv
wmic process get name,ExecutablePath,processid,parentprocessid /format:csv | findstr /I "appdata"
wmic process where processid=[PID] get parentprocessid
wmic process where processid=[PID] get commandline
wmic process where "commandline is not null and commandline!=''" get name,commandline /format:csv
gwmi win32_process -Filter "name like 'powershell.exe'" | select name,processId,commandline|FL
gwmi win32_process | select name,processId,path,commandline|FL
gwmi win32_process |FL ProcessID,ParentProcessID,CommandLine,@{e={$_.GetOwner().User}}
gwmi win32_process | Sort-Object -Property ProcessID | FL ProcessID,Path,CommandLine,ParentProcessID,@{n="User";e={$_.GetOwner().User}},@{n="ParentProcessPath";e={gps -Id $_.ParentProcessID|Select -exp Path}}
pslist
Get-Process -IncludeUserName
Verify EternalBlue Patch (MS17-010) is installed – Microsoft
Note: This impacts the SMB 1.0 Server Driver, if you don’t have the below, then it’s not installed. If you do you can use the above to determine patch level.
Check running executables for malware via VirusTotal
Note: VT Has a rate limit for the Public API so this won’t work if you are using the Public API. All 1 liners require VTAPIKey to be set as your VirusTotal API key
For more creation and usage of Yara, refer to PMA Writeup
Use Snort to test a created Snort rule over a pcap
snort -A fast --pcap-single=./pcap.pcap -c ./strrat.rules -l /var/log/snort
Kill malicious process
wmic process where name="malware.exe" call terminate
wmic process where processid=[PID] delete
taskkill /IM malware.exe
taskkill /PID [PID] /T
Note: Call terminate allows you to specify an exit status in terms of a signed integer or a quoted negative value. Both methods essentially function the same by calling TerminateProcess.
Dump full process memory
(procdump requires systinternals procdump.exe)
procdump -ma [processID]
Live Triage of Memory
Shout-out to Matt Graeber, Jared Atkinson and Joe Desimone for the awesome work that has gone into these scripts. Note: Not all tested, appears to work with a standard Meterpreter payload, and by default with Cobalt Strike.
Note: Examples of some known staging directories, lots of false positives likely.
gci C:\ProgramData\ -recurse -include .* -ea 0 -force | ?{ $_.PSIsContainer }
gci C:\Windows\Temp -recurse -ea 0 -force | ?{ $_.PSIsContainer }
ls C:\ProgramData\tmp\log.log
ls C:\ProgramData\log.log
ls C:\ProgramData\google\
ls C:\ProgramData\Sun\low
ls env:temp\SMB
ls $Recycle.Bin
ls C:\ProgramData\.rnd
ls C:\inetpub\
Event tracing is how a Provider (an application that contains event tracing instrumentation) creates items within the Windows Event Log for a consumer. This is how event logs are generated, and is also a way they can be tampered with. More information on this architecture can be found below.
Note: Logs and their event codes have changed over time. Most of the references here are for Windows Vista and Server 2008 onwards rather than Windows 2000,XP,Server 2003. More information on them may be added in the future if required.
(psloglist requires psloglist.exe from systinternals):
Note: Some suspicious events – “Event log service was stopped”, “Windows File Protection is not active on this system”, “The MS Telnet Service has started successfully”
Security: 4720 (Account created)
Security: 4722 (Account enabled)
Security: 4724 (Password reset)
Security: 4723 (User changed password)
Security: 4736 (Account deleted)
Security: 4781 (Account renamed)
Security: 4738 (User account change)
Security: 4688 (A new process has been created)
Security: 4732 (Account added to a group)
Security: 4733 (Account removed from a group)
Security: 1102 (Audit log cleared)
Security: 4614 (Security System Extension)
Security: 4672 (Special privileges assigned to new logon)
Security: 4624 (Account successfully logged on)
Security: 4698 (Scheduled Task Creation)
Security: 4702 (Scheduled Task Modified)
Security: 4699 (Scheduled Task Deleted)
Security: 4701 (Scheduled Task Disabled)
Security: 4700 (Scheduled Task Enabled)
Security: 4697 (Service Installation)
Security: 4625 (Account failed to log on)
Security: 4776 (The domain controller attempted to validate credentials for an account)
0x10 – Smart card logon is being attempted and the proper certificate cannot be located.
0x17 – The user’s password has expired.
0x18 – The wrong password was provided.
Security: Greater than 4720 Eand less than 4764 (Account/group modifications)
Logon type information
Type: 0 (Used only by System account authentications)
Type: 2 (Interactive Logon)
User is at the keyboard.
Type: 3 (Network Authentication/SMB Auth Logon)
Auth over the network. Note: RDP can fall under this if Network Level Authentication is enabled.
Type: 4 (Batch Logon)
More often than not from a Scheduled Task.
Type: 5 (Service Logon)
More often than not from a Service.
Type: 7 (Unlock Logon)
User is at the keyboard unlocking it after lunch.
Type: 8 (Network Cleartext Logon)
Basically Logon Type 3 but creds are in the clear.
Type: 9 (New Credentials Logon)
More often than not from using ‘RunAs’ with the ‘/netonly’ parameter.
Type: 10 (Terminal/RDP Logon Type)
Logon via Terminal Services/RDP.
Type: 11 (Cached Interactive)
Logon when unable to connect to domain (Cached Creds locally).
Type: 12 (Cached Remote Interactive)
Same as RemoteInteractive. This is used for internal auditing.
Type: 13 (Cached Unlock Logon)
Same as Unlock Logon except with cached creds.
Special logon information (4672)
Privilege Name
Description
Notes
SeAssignPrimaryTokenPrivilege
Replace a process-level token
Required to assign the primary token of a process. With this privilege, the user can initiate a process to replace the default token associated with a started subprocess.
SeAuditPrivilege
Generate security audits
With this privilege, the user can add entries to the security log.
SeBackupPrivilege
Back up files and directories
Required to perform backup operations. With this privilege, the user can bypass file and directory, registry, and other persistent object permissions for the purposes of backing up the system. This privilege causes the system to grant all read access control to any file, regardless of the access control list (ACL) specified for the file. Any access request other than read is still evaluated with the ACL.
SeCreateTokenPrivilege
Create a token object
Allows a process to create a token which it can then use to get access to any local resources when the process uses NtCreateToken() or other token-creation APIs. When a process requires this privilege, we recommend using the LocalSystem account (which already includes the privilege), rather than creating a separate user account and assigning this privilege to it.
SeDebugPrivilege
Debug programs
Required to debug and adjust the memory of a process owned by another account.With this privilege, the user can attach a debugger to any process or to the kernel. We recommend that SeDebugPrivilege always be granted to Administrators, and only to Administrators. Developers who are debugging their own applications do not need this user right. Developers who are debugging new system components need this user right. This user right provides complete access to sensitive and critical operating system components.
SeEnableDelegationPrivilege
Enable computer and user accounts to be trusted for delegation
With this privilege, the user can set the Trusted for Delegation setting on a user or computer object.The user or object that is granted this privilege must have write access to the account control flags on the user or computer object.
SeImpersonatePrivilege
Impersonate a client after authentication
With this privilege, the user can impersonate other accounts.
SeLoadDriverPrivilege
Load and unload device drivers
Required to load or unload a device driver.With this privilege, the user can dynamically load and unload device drivers or other code in to kernel mode. This user right does not apply to Plug and Play device drivers.
SeRestorePrivilege
Restore files and directories
Required to perform restore operations. This privilege causes the system to grant all write access control to any file, regardless of the ACL specified for the file. Any access request other than write is still evaluated with the ACL. Additionally, this privilege enables you to set any valid user or group SID as the owner of a file. With this privilege, the user can bypass file, directory, registry, and other persistent objects permissions when restoring backed up files and directories and determines which users can set any valid security principal as the owner of an object.
SeSecurityPrivilege
Manage auditing and security log
Required to perform a number of security-related functions, such as controlling and viewing audit events in security event log. With this privilege, the user can specify object access auditing options for individual resources, such as files, Active Directory objects, and registry keys.A user with this privilege can also view and clear the security log.
SeSystemEnvironmentPrivilege
Modify firmware environment values
Required to modify the nonvolatile RAM of systems that use this type of memory to store configuration information.
SeTakeOwnershipPrivilege
Take ownership of files or other objects
Required to take ownership of an object without being granted discretionary access. This privilege allows the owner value to be set only to those values that the holder may legitimately assign as the owner of an object. With this privilege, the user can take ownership of any securable object in the system, including Active Directory objects, files and folders, printers, registry keys, processes, and threads.
SeTcbPrivilege
Act as part of the operating system
This privilege identifies its holder as part of the trusted computer base.This user right allows a process to impersonate any user without authentication. The process can therefore gain access to the same local resources as that user.
System log information:
wevtutil qe system /f:text
eventquery.vbs /L system
Note: Some useful events –
System: 7030 (Basic Service Operations)
System: 7040 (The start type of a service was changed from disabled to auto start)
System: 7045 (Service Was Installed)
System: 1056 (DHCP Server Oddities)
System: 10000 (COM Functionality)
System: 20001 (Device Driver Installation)
System: 20002 (Remote Access)
System: 20003 (Service Installation)
Application log information
Many applications output errors to the Windows Application Event Logs. For example an application crash may generate an event, or an error may generate an event of value. It’s worth looking for events with a source relating to a known vulnerable component that may have been exploited. For example the Australian Cyber Security Centre makes special note in one of their reports for the following event.
Event ID: 1309
Source: ASP.NET
In particular instances of this event with reference to Telerik.Web.UI.IAsyncUploadConfiguration, one can help to identify successful exploitation of a vulnerable Telerik instance.
Another example is looking at successful MsiInstaller events, given malicious MSI files are all too common. Some examples of viewing these in PowerShell is given below.
Note: Live information can be found using DSQuery or Netdom.
dsquery computer
dsquery user
dsquery contact
dsquery domainroot -inactive 4
dsquery group
dsquery ou
dsquery site
dsquery server
dsquery quota
dsquery *
- dsquery * -limit 999999999
netdom query fsmo
netdom query trust
netdom query pdc
netdom query DC
netdom query server
netdom query workstation
netdom query OU
NT Directory Services Directory Information Tree File (ntds.dit)
Active Directory Database file containing all schema, domain, configuration information (e.g. users, IP, computers, domain trusts etc)
%SystemRoot%\NTDS\ntds.dit
%SystemRoot%\System32\ntds.dit
File created only when promoting certain OS to a DC, and seldom used.
Edb.log
10MB transaction log used to store temporary data before it is sent to the ntds.dit database.
%SystemRoot%\NTDS\Edb.log
Edbxxxxx.log
Additional transaction log files if the main edb.log file gets larger than 10MB without being flushed to ntds.dit.
%SystemRoot%\NTDS\edbxxxxx.log
Edb.chk
Checkpoint file used to determine how much of the transaction logs have been sent to the ntdis.dit database.
%SystemRoot%\NTDS\edb.chk
Resx.log/Resx.jrs
Reserved log files in case the hard drive fills up, at which point these files will be used (ideally they should never be used).
%SystemRoot%\NTDS\res1.log
%SystemRoot%\NTDS\res2.log
Temp.edb
Temporary file to store information during in progress transactions.
%SystemRoot%\NTDS\temp.edb
Schema.ini
Initialises the ntds.dit file when the domain controller is created, and is then never used again.
%SystemRoot%\NTDS\schema.ini
Investigation of ntds.dit
Obtaining this file can be done using any of the following and also requires the SYSTEM hive to decrypt (note: ntdsutil may not work on older AD servers).
(Output will be under C:\Audit)
ntdsutil
ntdsutil "activate instance ntds" ifm "create full C:\Audit" quit quit
Note: This may be useful for finding evidence of photo manipulation
exiftool -a -b -W FOLDERNAME/%f_%t%-c.%s -preview:all IMAGENAME.jpg
RDP Cache images
This can be used to display some fragments of images which a user could see when operating on a server using the Windows RDP. The cache files are located: %USERPROFILE%\AppData\Local\Microsoft\Terminal Server Client\Cache\
netsh firewall show config
advfirewall firewall show rule name=all verbose
Model of motherboard and hardware information:
wmic baseboard get product,manufacturer
wmic desktopmonitor get /all /format:list
wmic baseboard get /all /format:list
wmic bios get /all /format:list
wmic cpu get /all /format:list
Monitoring of open files:
openfiles /local on
Check Bitlocker Encryption
manage-bde -status
OR Powershell:
Get-BitLockerVolume
List open files
(this needs to have been enabled first and the PC rebooted, psfiles requires sysinternals psfile.exe)
openfiles /query
psfile
Display proxy information
netsh winhttp show proxy
Disconnect open files based on username:
openfiles /disconnect /a username
Powershell (some with WMI). Note: Namespace is a group of classes belonging to the same management environment. Most important is the CIMV2 child which is the most common.
It should be noted the following System events relate to this and should be reviewed:
Event IDs 5827 and 5828 in the System event log, if ZeroLogon connections are denied.
Event IDs 5830 and 5831 in the System event log, if ZeroLogon connections are allowed by “Domain controller: Allow vulnerable Netlogon secure channel connections” group policy.
Event ID 5829 in the System event log, if ZeroLogon vulnerable Netlogon secure channel connection is allowed.
Rename mshtml.dll (CVE-2021-40444 Mitigation)
Note: This will render any application which leverages mshtml.dll for rendering HTML content unable to do so (including mshta.exe – yay). At this stage the MSHTML (Trident) engine should not be leveraged by many applications and Microsoft recommends future app development not use the MSHTML (Trident) engine. Some examples of what do use it include .chm files and software mentioned here
Run cmd.exe as Administrator.takeown /F mshtml.dll icacls mshtml.dll /grant administrators:F move mshtml.dll mshtml2.dll cd ../SysWOW64 takeown /F mshtml.dll icacls mshtml.dll /grant administrators:F move mshtml.dll mshtml2.dll
Delete ms-msdt association (CVE-2022-30190/Follina Mitigation)
Stop Server Responsible for Inter-process Communication Calls
net stop server
Delete Admin Shares
Note: This may break some application communication and admin functionality. It may also be temporary as Windows has been known to recreate them. Always test.
C$ = Default share on systems ‘C’ drive.
IPC$ = Default Inter-process communication share (used by named pipes)
ADMIN$ = Default share for remote administration (used by PsExec)net share C$ /delete net share IPC$ /delete net share ADMIN$ /delete
Named pipes are used for communication between processes, this includes a process from a remote system.
A named pipe can be created by anyone.
By enabling ‘RestrictNullSessAccess’ you stop anonymous network logons from accessing named pipes on your system.
If a process has the ‘SeImpersonatePrivilege’ (or equivalent) privilege assigned and creates a named pipe, it may be able to impersonate the user context of anyone who connects to its named pipe if it then acts as the named pipe server.
The client of a named pipe, RPC, or DDE connection can control the impersonation level that the server of the named pipe can impersonate, ref: Microsoft
This doesn’t apply if the connection is remote, in that instance the permissions are set by the server.
Any service running through the Service Control Manager (SCM), or Component Object Model (COM) specified to run under a certain account, automatically has impersonate privileges.
When creating a child process using ‘CreateProcessWithToken’ the secondary logon service ‘seclogon’ needs to be running or else this will fail.
Impersonation level
Description
SecurityAnonymous
The server cannot impersonate or identify the client.
SecurityIdentification
The server can get the identity and privileges of the client, but cannot impersonate the client.
SecurityImpersonation
The server can impersonate the client’s security context on the local system.
SecurityDelegation
The server can impersonate the client’s security context on remote systems.
In Windows 7 or certain other OS you may not have access to use ‘vssadmin create’. As such some trickery may be required. In Windows 7 we can create a scheduled task (to execute with System privileges) and use it to create a Shadow Copy with Microsoft DLLs, this simulates the activity of creating a ‘System Restore Point’. This can also be done with psexec if you wish to install the psexec service.
Under %SystemRoot%\System32\config the below registry hives are some of the most important to obtain. Additionally taking these files from within the RegBack directory also assists in comprehensive analysis should any anti-forensics activities have modified these registries.
DEFAULT
SAM
SECURITY
SOFTWARE
SYSTEM
Under \Users\name there is also a NTUSER.DAT file which becomes HKEY_CURRENT_USER into the Registry when a user logs on, and this is very important to obtain. There’s also a UsrClass.dat file which can be found: %USERPROFILE%\AppData\Local\Microsoft\Windows\UsrClass.dat
Gather artifacts
reg save HKLM\SAM [LOCATION]\SAM
reg save HKLM\SYSTEM [LOCATION]\SYSTEM
reg save HKLM\SECURITY [LOCATION]\SECURITY
reg save HKLM\SOFTWARE [LOCATION]\SOFTWARE
Powershell execution log
Located at: C:\Users[name]\AppData\Roaming\Microsoft\Windows\PowerShell\PSReadline
\RecentDocs (Notes recent files run, most commonly .lnk files)
\UserAssist (Notes files run and number of times run. Values are ROT13 encoded),
CEBFF5CD is Executable File Execution
F4E57C4B is Shortcut File Execution
\TypedPaths (Notes file locations visited using Windows Explorer address bar)
\RunMRU (Notes recent commands executed through the ‘run’ program)
\ComDlg32 (Last file path visited)
\LastVisitedPidlMRU (Last PID which was ‘Most Recently Used’, e.g. the binaries used to open a file)
\OpenSavePidlMRU (Last Saved PID file which was ‘Most Recently Used’, location of a file opened by a binary)
\WordWheelQuery (Keywords searched for from the START menu bar)
\FeatureUsage\AppBadgeUpdated (Every Time Task Bar Application Gets Notification and Badge Updates)
\FeatureUsage\AppLaunch (Every Time Task Bar Application Which is Pinned is Launched)
\FeatureUsage\AppSwitched (Every Time Task Bar Application Left Clicked)
\FeatureUsage\ShowJumpView (Every Time Task Bar Application Right Clicked)
\FeatureUsage\TrayButtonClicked (Every Time Relevant Button on Task Bar is Clicked)
You can get the names of recently run files from UserAssist by using ROT13 across them, we can do this quickly in Powershell by using a script from BornToBeRoot and some scriptfu:
“A service worker is a script that your browser runs in the background, separate from a web page, opening the door to features that don’t need a web page or user interaction.” – Service Worker Reference
Service Workers control popups and push notifications received from websites. As this can be used to trick users into taking actions such as opening pages with redirects, installing malware and more these have been included and can be found at the below:
In Browser: chrome://serviceworker-internals/
C:\Users\[username]\AppData\Local\Google\Chrome\User Data\Default\Service Worker\ScriptCache
C:\Users\[username]\AppData\Local\Google\Chrome\User Data\Default\Preferences
Files located at: C:\Users\Username\AppData\Local\Microsoft\Windows\Explorer
Shellbags
Shellbags can be used to verify the previous existance of files which have been deleted. This is used by the OS to store information about a file location’s customisation e.g. look, feel, size, sorting files method, colour etc and resides after files have been deleted. Shellbags Explorer or ShellBagsView can be used to parse this information.
HKCU\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\Shell
\BagMRU
\Bags
BagsMRU contains the database of folders and their saved settings by windows.
UsrClass.dat Shellbags
Additional shellbags files can be found in UsrClass.dat
Lookup MAC Address/Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI)
A number of ways to do this but one of the most accurate is from the IEEE Webpage. You can interact directly with their REST API to get the results you want in JSON format. To do so via PowerShell, just change the ‘text’ top the first 3 digits of the MAC Address (The OUI):
Note: The above filters can be used with the below techniques by specifying ‘-Y’ and using a capture filter, or ‘-R’ and using a read/display filter (only use if doing multiple passes of file). Different outputs are specified using ‘-T’.
Outside of this, the registry has a number of artifacts:
HKLM\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows Portable Devices\Devices Note: Find Serial # and then look for FriendlyName to obtain the Volume Name of the USB device
Key will ONLY be present if system drive is NOT SSD
Traditionally used for ReadyBoost
Find Serial # to obtain the Volume Serial Numberof the USB deviceoThe Volume Serial Number will be in decimal – convert to hex
You can find complete history of Volume Serial Numbers here, even if the device has been formatted multiple times. The USB device’s Serial # will appear multiple times, each with a different Volume Serial Number generated on each format.
HKLM\SYSTEM\MountedDevices
Find Serial # to obtain the Drive Letter of the USB device
Find Serial # to obtain the Volume GUID of the USB device
Using the VolumeGUID found in SYSTEM\MountedDevices, you can find the user that actually mounted the USB device: NTUSER.DAT\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Explorer\Mountpoints2 USB Times:
First time device is connected
Last time device is connected
Removal time
Live System HKLM\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Enum\USBSTOR (Class ID/Serial Number) HKLM\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Enum\USB (VID/PID) HKLM\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\DeviceContainers*
Live System pnputil for all devices and interfaces
pnputil /enum-devices
pnputil /enum-interfaces
Forensic Image (Determine Control Set Number from HKLM\SYSTEM\Select\ -> Current Value) HKLM\SYSTEM\ControlSet00x\Enum\USBSTOR (Class ID/Serial Number) HKLM\SYSTEM\ControlSet00x\Enum\USB (VID/PID)
Note: VID/PID information can be found online. Subdirectories under USB and USBSTOR provide unique USB identifiers (if the & is near the end), if it is near the start they do not conform to MS standards and it is unique to the given PC only.
PowerShell Host Based Investigation and Containment Techniques
Note: I thoroughly recommend looking at maintaining an accurate log of all actions taken through the use of PowerShell host based IR and Containment. To do so I recommend reading PowerShell ♥ the Blue Team. This will allow you to log all actions taken through this type of IR Framework. Other alternatives for larger scale response include:
Enter-PSSession -ComputerName SERVER -Credential [name]
Setup logging for IR
Note: If you enter a PSSession, the logging won’t persist, so you will need to enable it on the remote host and pull the file back afterwards. Otherwise refer to PowerShell ♥ the Blue Team mentioned above.
Note: Another method which is a little more DANGEROUS is to disable DCOM on this host and restart which will stop something using DCOM to spread TO this host. This will likely break some aspects of it communicating on the domain, and also your ability to respond so it’s not recommended, but this is a possible solution for a host which is to be thoroughly contained before being investigated once an asset is returned (for example for re-imaging). This can be reversed by changing this registry key back to Y.
When investigating a compromised asset, it’s important to know what remote triage methods leave your credentials on the infected endpoint, and what ones don’t. Reference can be found on Microsoft Documentation
Connection Method
Logon Type
Reusable credentials on destination
Notes
Logon via console
Interactive
Y
Includes hardware remote access/network KVM/lights-out cards
RUNAS
Interactive
Y
Nil
RUNAS/NETWORK
NewCredentials
Y
Clones LSA session, but uses new creds when connecting to network resources.
Remote Desktop
RemoteInteractive
Y
Nil
Remote Desktop Failure
RemoteInteractive
N
Only stored briefly
Net Use * \SERVER
Network
N
Nil
Net Use * \ SERVER /user
Network
N
Nil
MMC snap-ins to remote computer
Network
N
Nil
PowerShell WinRM
Network
N
e.g. Enter-PSSession SERVER
PowerShell WinRM with CredSSP
NetworkClearText
Y
e.g. New-PSSession SERVER -Authentication Credssp -Credential PWD
PsExec without explicit creds
Network
N
e.g. PsExec \SERVER cmd
PsExec with explicit creds
Network&Interactive
Y
PsExec \SERVER -u USER -p PWD cmd
Remote Registry
Network
N
Nil
Remote Desktop Gateway
Network
N
Authenticating to Remote Desktop Gateway
Scheduled Task
Batch
Y
Also saved as LSA secret on disk
Tools as Service
Service
Y
Also saved as LSA secret on disk
Vuln Scanners
Network
N
Most use Network logons; however, those that don’t have the risk of creds on destination.
IIS “Basic Authentication”
NetworkCleartext
Y
Nil
IIS “Integrated Windows Authentication”
Network
N
NTLM/Kerberos Providers
Cached Credentials
Cached credentials are located within a system’s registry at:
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SECURITY\Cache
Kerberos Tickets and Exposure
Special thanks to Cert EU for this. When comparing Pass-the-Hash to Pass-the-Ticket attacks, the following key differences apply:
Administrative privileges are required to steal credentials, but NOT to use an obtained Kerberos ticket.
A password change does NOT make Kerberos tickets invalid. By default Kerberos has a max lifetime of 10hrs before the ticket must be renewed, and a max renewal time of 7 days after being granted.
Due to this disabling accounts may not be enough to prevent ongoing compromise, and you may have to purge the users kerberos ticket. Locate the user in question using ‘sessions’ and purge by specifying the user session prior to logging them off.
Note: Version 3 of Volatility was released in November 2019 which changes the Volatility usage and syntax. More information on V3 of Volatility can be found on ReadTheDocs.
The Cyber Swiss Army Knife – a web app for encryption, encoding, compression and data analysis. Note: This was created by an analyst at the GCHQ which is part of the UKs National Cyber Security Centre. The source is actively maintained on Github
A “sandbox for the web”. One of the most widely used, freely available URL scanners which provides a breakdown of technologies used on a website, safebrowsing score, screenshots, redirects, hosting information and certificates, and much more.
Can be used to see any redirects that will likely occur with a description on each response code to help with analysis when accessing a URL e.g. a shortened URL such as bitly links.
Attackers are using popular legitimate domains when conducting phishing, C&C, exfiltration and downloading tools to evade detection. LOTS-Project aims to list websites that allow attackers to use their domain or subdomain.
Parse and interpret hidden XLM Macros (Excel 4.0 Macros)
xlmdeobfuscator --file malware.xlsm
Note: Using a tool such as BiffView we’re able to view BOUNDSHEET records to find hidden sheets. This is indicated by ‘02 01’ hex values at the 5th and 6th offset.
Changing 02 to 00 makes these hidden spreadsheets visible without having to run any macros.
Mounting image files in linux
mkdir /mnt/windows
imageMounter.py
ImageMounter.py -s <imagefile> /mnt/windows
cd /mnt/windows
Disclaimer: Always test before running against live systems. For those running Office365 this documentation may be more useful.
# This is used to authenticate yourself and connect to the exchange server
$UserCredential = Get-Credential
$Session = New-PSSession -ConfigurationName Microsoft.Exchange -ConnectionUri http://EXCHANGEHOSTFQDN/PowerShell/ -Credential $UserCredential
Import-PSSession $Session -DisableNameChecking
# This is used to confirm the mailboxes accessible and modules available
Get-Mailbox
Get-Module
# This is used to remove emails from a mailbox and move them to an administrator mailbox as a backup
Search-Mailbox -Identity "NAME" | Search-Mailbox -SearchQuery 'Subject:"SUBJECT LINE"' -TargetMailbox "ADMINBACKUPMAILBOX" -TargetFolder "BACKUPFOLDER" -DeleteContent
# This is used to run a report on anyone who received an email with a malicious attachment and log this information in an administrator mailbox
Get-Mailbox -ResultSize unlimited | Search-Mailbox -SearchQuery attachment:trojan* -TargetMailbox "ADMINBACKUPMAILBOX" -TargetFolder "BACKUPFOLDER" -LogOnly -LogLevel Full
# This is used to disconnect from the established powershell session
Remove-PSSession $Session
Common DLL Information
DLL
Description
Kernel32.dll
(Windows Kernel) This is a very common DLL that contains core functionality, such as access and manipulation of memory, files, and hardware.
Advapi32.dll
(Advanced API) This DLL provides access to advanced core Windows components such as the Service Manager and Registry.
Ntdll.dll
(NT Layer) This DLL is the interface to the Windows kernel. Executables rarely import this file directly, although it is always imported indirectly by Kernel32.dll. If an executable deliberately imports this, it means that the author wanted to use functionality not normally available to Windows programs. Some tasks, such as hiding functionality or manipulating processes, will use this interface.
User32.dll
(Windows User) This DLL contains all the user interface components, such as buttons, scroll bars, and components for controlling and responding to user actions.
Wininet.dll
(Windows Internet API) This DLL contains high level networking functions. These implement protocols such as FTP, HTTP, and NTP.
Gdi32.dll
(Graphics Device Interface) This DLL contains functions used for displaying and manipulating graphics.
WSock32.dll and Ws2_32.dll
(Windows Sockets API) These are networking DLLs. A program that accesses either of these will likely connect to a network or perform network related tasks.
urlmon.dll
(OLE32 Extensions for Win32) This DLL contains functions for COM-based networking. It is used by Internet Explorer and many other applications similar to the Windows Sockets API; however, it is at a higher level than the Windows Sockets API and Windows Internet API and has many elements prefilled.
When analysing a binary, small amount of strings present and minimal imported functions help confirm that it is a packed binary.
Using Comaeio SwishDbgExt you are able to better analyse Windows Crash (DMP) files using Windbg. To do this, download the latest release, run windbg, load the correct dll and then run a command. At the time of writing there are:
!load X:\FullPath\SwishDbgExt.dll
!help - Displays information on available extension commands
!ms_callbacks - Display callback functions
!ms_checkcodecave - Look for used code cave
!ms_consoles - Display console command's history
!ms_credentials - Display user's credentials (based on gentilwiki's mimikatz)
!ms_drivers - Display list of drivers
!ms_dump - Dump memory space on disk
!ms_exqueue - Display Ex queued workers
!ms_fixit - Reset segmentation in WinDbg (Fix "16.kd>")
!ms_gdt - Display GDT
!ms_hivelist - Display list of registry hives
!ms_idt - Display IDT
!ms_lxss - Display lsxx entries
!ms_malscore - Analyze a memory space and returns a Malware Score Index (MSI) - (based on Frank Boldewin's work)
!ms_mbr - Scan Master Boot Record (MBR)
!ms_netstat - Display network information (sockets, connections, ...)
!ms_object - Display list of object
!ms_process - Display list of processes
!ms_readkcb - Read key control block
!ms_readknode - Read key node
!ms_readkvalue - Read key value
!ms_regcheck - Scan for suspicious registry entries
!ms_scanndishook - Scan and display suspicious NDIS hooks
!ms_services - Display list of services
!ms_ssdt - Display service descriptor table (SDT) functions
!ms_store - Display information related to the Store Manager (ReadyBoost)
!ms_timers - Display list of KTIMER
!ms_vacbs - Display list of cached VACBs
!ms_verbose - Turn verbose mode on/off
!ms_yarascan - Scan process memory using yara rules
Other inbuilt WindBG commands (Useful for single-process memory dump analysis)
Get Address memory information
!address
Get All Thread Information
~*
Get Current Thread Information
~.
Get information from each frame of thread stack
!for_each_frame db
!for_each_frame dv -t -v
!for_each_frame dt -b
Recursively dump PEB of process
dt ntdll!_PEB @$peb -r
Create Dump
.dump D:\Downloads\test\test.dmp
DLL/Module Information
!dlls
lm
x *!
!lmi [ModuleName]
Get stacks for all threads
!uniqstack
Search Heap for String to view in memory
!address -f:Heap -c:"s -u %1 %2 \"http\""
Search for String across all memory
s -a 0 L?FFFFFFFF "StringToFind"
s -u 0 L?FFFFFFFF "StringToFind"
svchost.exe should always have services.exe pid as ppid and a service associated with it.
there should never be more than 1 lsass.exe process.
lsass.exe should always have a parent of winlogon.exe (WinXP and older) or Wininit.exe (Vista or newer).
pslist and pstree follow a ‘Double Linked List’ which malware can ‘unlink’ itself from thus hiding the process.
psscan looks instead for ‘EPROCESS blocks’ which is memory associated with a windows process.
Discrepencies between these 2 areas can indicate the process hollowing has occurred.
VAD = Virtual Address Descriptor which lives in kernel memory.
PEB = Process Environment Block which lives in process memory.
PAGE_EXECUTE_READWRITE protection indicates memory marked as executable, which may indicate potential shellcode was used or injected.
Process hollowing essentially pauses and duplicates a legitimate process, replaces the executable memory with something malicious, and then resumes the process. Process Injection on the other hand injects malicious code into an already running process which causes that process to execute the code.
Significant differences in the above 2 outputs and the specified binary name under /proc/[PID]/exe can be indicative of malicious software attempting to remain undetected.
Process Environment Variables (incl user who ran binary)
Process file descriptors/maps (what the process is ‘accessing’ or using)
ls -al /proc/[PID]/fd
cat /proc/[PID]/maps
Process stack/status information (may reveal useful elements)
cat /proc/[PID]/stack
cat /proc/[PID]/status
Deleted binaries which are still running
ls -alr /proc/*/exe 2> /dev/null | grep deleted
Process Working Directories (including common targeted directories)
ls -alr /proc/*/cwd
ls -alr /proc/*/cwd 2> /dev/null | grep tmp
ls -alr /proc/*/cwd 2> /dev/null | grep dev
ls -alr /proc/*/cwd 2> /dev/null | grep var
ls -alr /proc/*/cwd 2> /dev/null | grep home
ls -al /var/log/*
ls -al /var/log/*tmp
utmpdump /var/log/btmp
utmpdump /var/run/utmp
utmpdump /var/log/wtmp
Installed Software Packages
ls /usr/bin/
ls /usr/local/bin/
MacOS Cheat Sheet
IMPORTANT NOTE: This section is still in its early stages of documentation and testing. I strongly suggest checking out Sarah Edwards, who is an industry leader in this space, as she has many excellent resources and this section for the most part is reiterating the hard work she has put in. Other excellent resources include the Mac OS X Forensics Wikis and shared spreadsheet containing Forensics Artifacts.
ls Applications/<application>.app/Contents/XPCServices/
cat Applications/<application>.app/Contents/XPCServices/*.xpc/Contents/Info.plist
ls ~/System/Library/XPCServices/
Launch Agents & Launch Daemons
ls /Library/LaunchAgents/
ls /System/Library/LaunchAgents/
ls /System/Library/LaunchDaemons/
ls /Library/LaunchDaemons/
ls /users/*/Library/LaunchAgents/
ls /users/*/Library/LaunchDaemons/
LoginItems
cat ~/Library/Preferences/com.apple.loginitems.plist
ls <application>.app/Contents/Library/LoginItems/
cat ~/Library/Preferences/com.apple.Safari.plist
ls ~/Library/Application Support/Google/Chrome/Default/Preferences
ls ~/Library/Application Support/Firefox/Profiles/********.default/prefs.js
ls ~/Library/Application Support/Google/Chrome/Default/History
ls ~/Library/Caches/Google/Chrome/Default/Cache/
ls ~/Library/Caches/Google/Chrome/Default/Media Cache/
cat ~/Library/Mail/V2/MailData/Accounts.plist
ls ~/Library/Mail/V2/
ls ~/Library/Mail Downloads/
ls ~/Downloads
cat ~/Library/Mail/V2/MailData/OpenAttachments.plist
Temporary / Cached
ls /tmp
ls /var/tmp
ls /Users/<user>/Library/Caches/Java/tmp
ls /Users/<user>/Library/Caches/Java/cache
/Applications/Utilities/Java Preferences.app
System and Audit Logs
ls /private/var/log/asl/
ls /private/var/audit/
cat /private/var/log/appfirewall.log
ls ~/Library/Logs
ls /Library/Application Support/<app>
ls /Applications/
ls /Library/Logs/
What Is The “Best” Cybersecurity Framework For Your Needs?
The concept of a “best” cybersecurity framework is misguided, since the most appropriate framework to align with is entirely dependent upon your business model. The applicable laws, regulations and contractual obligations that your organiation must comply with will most often point you to one of four (4) starting points to kick off the discussion about “Which framework is most appropriate for our needs?“:
NIST Cybersecurity Framework (NIST CSF);
ISO 27001/27002;
NIST SP 800-53 (moderate or high baselines); or
Secure Controls Framework (SCF) (or a similar metaframework).
When you graphically depict the various, leading cybersecurity frameworks from “easier to harder” it primarily focuses on the sheer number of unique cybersecurity and privacy controls. The volume of these controls (e.g., requirements) directly impacts the number of domains covered by that cybersecurity framework. The lesser number of controls in a cybersecurity framework might make it appear easier to implement, but it also might not provide the necessary coverage that your organization needs from the perspective of administrative, technical and physical cybersecurity and privacy practices. Defining “just right” for your cybersecurity and privacy controls is primarily a business decision, based on your organization’s risk profile, which needs to consider applicable laws, regulations and contractual obligations that are required to support existing or planned business processes.
A very important consideration when selecting a framework is necessary customization. It is unlikely that a single framework will fit your needs perfectly, so you have to expect to tailor a framework for your specific needs (e.g., add to it, remove unnecessary content or merge multiple frameworks). From a customization perspective, think of “bolting on” content to a cybersecurity frameworks similar to the concept of gnawing off the square sides of a peg to make it fit into a round hole – it will eventually fit but it likely will not look very good or fit very well. This is the downside of customizing cybersecurity frameworks to add content that the framework lacks. It is generally less painful/costly to align with a more robust framework and remove content than it is to start with a lesser framework and add content.
Is There A Goldilocks Framework – Not Too Hard, Not Too Soft, But Just Right?
The selection process for cybersecurity frameworks generally leads to adopting a “starting point” framework. These foundational frameworks are the NIST Cybersecurity Framework, ISO 27002, NIST 800-53 or the Secure Controls Framework (SCF). We call it the “cybersecurity Goldilocks dilemma” since it addresses the question: Which cybersecurity framework is “not too hard, not too soft, but just right!” for my organization? It comes down to first defining your “must have” and “nice to have” requirements, since that helps point you to the most appropriate framework to meet your specific needs:
“Must Have” Minimum Compliance Criteria (MCC) (e.g., laws, regulations and contractual obligations); and
“Nice to Have” Discretionary Security Requirements (DSR) (e.g., not legally-required but you feel you need to be secure, such as FIM, DLP, MFA, etc.)
Those two considerations come together to address the “Compliant vs Secure” decision for an organization’s cybersecurity and/or privacy program to be both secure and compliant. You can read more about that in the Integrated Controls Management (ICM) model.
“Compliant” vs “Secure” Considerations
The more robust the framework you select to align with, you can expect to have more topics covered by the included controls. This generally means you will have more comprehensive policies and standards to meet the expanded coverage. The dilemma many companies face is they want to be compliant, while minimizing the amount of paperwork (e.g., policies, standards and controls) that they have to maintain. This is where the aspect of your organization’s leadership team is important to really define the risk culture of the organization at a fundamental level:
Compliance Focused – this is aiming for mediocrity by focusing on only the bare minimums to comply with a law, regulation or framework. (note – this approach is very common. It is misguided, but common)
Security Focused – this is focused on hard-core secure engineering practices and compliance is not a concern. (note – this approach is rare)
Compliant & Secure Focused – this is a holistic approach that is focused on making sure systems, applications and services are secure by design and default, where compliance is viewed as a natural byproduct by having the proper blend of cybersecurity and privacy practices. (note – this is an optimal approach that organizations should strive for)
Cybersecurity Framework Heatmap
Not all frameworks are created equally and that is ok. It is not uncommon for experienced cybersecurity practitioners to have fundamental misunderstandings of the differences between laws, regulations and frameworks. However, in this context, what is depicted on the heatmap is refered to as a “framework” since by the NIST Glossary definition, a framework is “a layered structure indicating what kind of programs can or should be built and how they would interrelate.” Even a law or regulation can serve as a framework for building a cybersecurity program.
We understand that it can be a little confusing when you look at it from a “heat map” perspective, since each cybersecurity framework has its own unique scope of applicability (e.g., specialization) and depth of coverage. However, understanding this can help you make an informed decision on where to start for the most appropriate framework(s) for your needs (often, organizations utilize more than one framework). You may even find you need to leverage a metaframework (e.g., framework of frameworks) to address more complex compliance requirements.
How Do You Pick A Cybersecurity Framework? (Coke vs Pepsi Analogy)
If you look at this from the perspective of a debate over which soft drink tastes best (e.g., Coke vs Pepsi), it generally comes down to personal preferences, since both products are essentially sugary, carbonated drinks and only differ slightly in flavor and packaging. The same arguments can be made for cybersecurity’s two heavy hitters – NIST 800-53 and ISO 27002. Gaining popularity is the NIST Cybersecurity Framework (NIST CSF), but it lacks appropriate coverage out of the box to be considered a comprehensive cybersecurity framework. For more complex compliance requirements, the SCF is a “metaframework” that encompasses over 100 laws, regulations and frameworks in a hybrid framework that can span multiple compliance requirements.
Cybersecurity Framework Comparison: NIST CSF vs ISO 27001/2 vs NIST 800-53 vs SCF
A key consideration for picking a cybersecurity framework involved understanding the level of content each framework offers, since this directly impacts the available cybersecurity and privacy controls that exist “out of the box” without having to bolt-on content to make it work for your specific needs. If you ask a cybersecurity professional to identify their preferred “best practice framework”, it generally comes down to NIST or ISO, since those are the most commonly-found frameworks. However, that doesn’t mean that is where you should limit your search.
If you are not sure where to start, here are some recommendations:
Have a discussion with your legal and procurement departments to find out what laws, regulations and contractual obligations your organization needs to comply with. If they don’t know, then you need to perform that discovery with their involvement to ensure you have the facts. Do not try to work off assumptions!
Talk with peers in your industry to identify what framework(s) their organization chose to align with and what those decisions were that led them to adopting one framework over another. You still have to do your own analysis to determine what is right, but talking with peers can help avoid “re-inventing the wheel” on certain aspects of the analysis process.
Determine what resources you have available to adopt and implement a framework. If it is a flip of the coin decision between two frameworks where you feel both meet your needs, you need to be sure to take into account which framework will be the most efficient to implement and maintain.
Evaluate your organization’s business and IT strategies to identify components that may require the adoption of a specific framework. For example:.
Your CEO puts out a roadmap to grow business and next year the company will start going after US Government and Department of Defense (DoD) contracts. This means your organization will have to address DFARS, FAR and CMMC compliance, which is based on NIST SP 800-171. This means alignment with NIST SP 800-53 or SCF might be the best path forward
A business unit is expanding into the European market and will focus on B2C sales. This means your organization will have to address EU GDPR for robust privacy practices, on top of cybersecurity. This means you could select any framework to address underlying cybersecurity practices, but you need a privacy program. The SCF might be the best path forward.
Speak with a reputable consultant. Not all “cybersecurity professionals” have the same backgrounds, experiences and competencies. Speak with a Governance, Risk and Compliance (GRC) professional about compliance-related frameworks and scoping decisions.
ISO 27001/2 is essentially a subset of the content found in NIST 800-53 (ISO 27002 went from fourteen (14) sections in 2013 to three (3) sections in 2022) where ISO 27002’s cybersecurity controls fit within the twenty (20) families of NIST 800-53 rev5 security controls.
NIST CSF is a subset of NIST 800-53 and also shares controls found in ISO 27001/2.
NIST CSF incorporates parts of ISO 27001/2 and parts of NIST 800-53, but is not inclusive of both – this is what makes NIST CSF is a common choice for smaller companies that need a set of “industry-recognized secure practices” to align with, where ISO 27001/2 and NIST 800-53 are better for larger companies or those that have unique compliance requirements.
When you start taking into account common requirements such as the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS), you will see from crosswalk mapping that these common requirements are more comprehensive than what is included natively by NIST CSF, so you would need to use ISO 27002 or NIST 800-53 to meet PCI DSS as a framework (depending on your SAQ level), unless you want to bolt-on additional controls to the NIST CSF to make that work. Is that wrong? No, but it is just messy when you start bolting onto frameworks.
Secure Controls Framework (SCF) Overview
If you are not familiar with the Secure Controls Framework (SCF), it was developed with the ambitious goal of providing a comprehensive catalog of cybersecurity and privacy control guidance to cover the strategic, operational and tactical needs of organizations, regardless of its size, industry or country of origin. By using the SCF, your IT, cybersecurity, legal and project teams can speak the same language about controls and requirement expectations! The SCF is a “metaframework” which is a framework of frameworks. The SCF is a superset that covers the controls found in NIST CSF, ISO 27002, NIST 800-53 and over 100 other laws, regulations and frameworks. These leading cybersecurity frameworks tend to cover the same fundamental building blocks of a cybersecurity program, but differ in some content and layout. Before picking a framework, it is important to understand that each one has its benefits and drawbacks. Therefore, your choice should be driven by the type of industry your business is in and what laws, regulations and contractual obligations your organization needs to comply with.
The SCF is an open source project that provides free cybersecurity and privacy controls for businesses. The SCF focuses on internal controls, which are the cybersecurity and privacy-related policies, standards, procedures and other processes that are designed to provide reasonable assurance that business objectives will be achieved and undesired events will be prevented, detected and corrected.
The Secure Controls Framework (SCF) is a “best in class” approach that covers over 100 cybersecurity and privacy laws, regulations and frameworks, including NIST 800-53, ISO 27001/2 and NIST CSF. Being a hybrid, it allows you to address multiple cybersecurity and privacy frameworks simultaneously. The SCF is a free resource for businesses to use. ComplianceForge’s Digital Security Program (DSP) has 1-1 mapping with the SCF, so the DSP provides the most comprehensive coverage of any ComplianceForge product.
NIST SP 800-53 Overview
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is on the fifth revision (rev5) of Special Publication (SP) 800-53, Security and Privacy Controls for Information Systems and Organizations. From rev4 to rev5, NIST dropped the “US Government” focus for NIST SP 800-53 and now has it generalized enough for private industry to use. There are still “NISTisms” for wording that are entirely US Government-focused, but it is a significant improvement for private industry adoption. NIST 800-53 “best practices” are the de facto standard for private businesses that do business with the US federal government.
One thing to keep in mind is that NIST 800-53 is a super-set of ISO 27002 – that means you will find all the components of ISO 27002 covered by NIST 800-53. However, ISO 27002 does not cover all of the areas of NIST 800-53.
The Federal Information Security Management Act (FISMA) and the Department of Defense Information Assurance Risk Management Framework (RMF) rely on the NIST 800-53 framework, so vendors to the US federal government must meet those same requirements in order to pass these rigorous certification programs. Additionally, for NIST 800-171, Protecting Controlled Unclassified Information in Nonfederal Information Systems and Organizations, NIST 800-53 is called out as the best practices for government contractors to secure their systems. That further helps strengthen NIST 800-53 as a best practice within the US, especially for any government contractors. We have a section that describes NIST 800-171 and Cybersecurity Maturity Model Certification (CMMC) if you are interested in that subject.
NIST 800-53 includes what both ISO 27002 and NIST CSF addresses, as well as a whole host of other requirements. NIST 800-53 is the basis for the controls found in NIST 800-171 / CMMC. NIST 800-53 is commonly found in the financial, medical and government contracting industries. One great thing about NIST 800-53, and it applies almost universally to all NIST 800-series publications. As with other NIST publications, it is freely available, at no cost to the public – http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/PubsSPs.html.
ISO 27001 / 27002 Overview
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a non-governmental organization that is headquartered in Switzerland. ISO can be a little more confusing for newcomers to IT security or compliance, since a rebranding occurred in 2007 to keep ISO’s IT security documents in the 27000 series of their documentation catalog – ISO 17799 was renamed and became ISO 27002. To add to any possible confusion, ISO 27002 is a supporting document that aides in the implementation of ISO 27001. Adding a little more confusion to the mix, it is important to note that companies cannot certify against ISO 27002, just ISO 27001.
ISO 27001 Appendix A contains the basic overview of the security controls needed to build an Information Security Management System (ISMS), but ISO 27002 provides those specific controls that are necessary to actually implement ISO 27001. Essentially, you can’t meet ISO 27001 without implementing ISO 27002:
ISO/IEC 27001:2022 – Information security, cybersecurity and privacy protection — Information security management systems — Requirements
ISO/IEC 27002:2022 – Information security, cybersecurity and privacy protection — Information security controls
To keep things simple, just remember that ISO 27001 lays out the framework to create an “Information Security Management System (ISMS)” (e.g., a comprehensive IT security program), whereas ISO 27002 contains the actual “best practices” details of what goes into building a comprehensive IT security program. Since ISO’s information security framework has been around since the mid-1990s, it was in “right time at the right place” to evolve into the de facto IT security framework outside of the United States. You will find ISO 27002 extensively used by multinational corporations and for companies that do not have to specifically comply with US federal regulations. ISO 27002 is also “less paranoid” than NIST 800-53, which has an advantage of being less complex and therefore easier implement.
NIST Cybersecurity Framework (NIST CSF) has the least coverage of the major cybersecurity frameworks. NIST CSF works great for smaller and unregulated businesses that just want to align with a recongized cybersecurity framework. The downside to the NIST CSF is that its brevity makes it incompatible with common compliance requirements, such as NIST 800-171, GDPR, CPRA/CCPA and PCI DSS (depending on SAQ level). For those, more comprehensive frameworks, such as NIST 800-53 or ISO 27002 are recommended.
In reality, NIST CSF is a “dumbed down” and civilianized version of NIST 800-53. It came out nearly a decade ago when NIST 800-53 was entirely focused on the US Government, so there was a need for a subset of the controls that NIST 800-53 provided but for the non-enterprise space in private industry (e.g., tailored for small to medium businesses). Over the past decade, different US Federal agencies have published documents describing how NIST CSF v1.1 controls can be leveraged to comply with HIPAA, FINRA, etc.
Overall, NIST CSF does not introduce new standards or concepts, but leverages and integrates industry-leading cybersecurity practices that have been developed by organizations like NIST and ISO. NIST CSF if organized into five categories of controls:
Identify;
Protect;
Detect;
Respond
Recover
The NIST CSF comprises a risk-based compilation of guidelines that can help organizations identify, implement, and improve cybersecurity practices, and creates a common language for internal and external communication of cybersecurity issues. The NIST CSF is designed to evolve with changes in cybersecurity threats, processes, and technologies. Essentially, the NIST CSF envisions effective cybersecurity as a dynamic, continuous loop of response to both threats and solutions. However, the “framework implementation tiers” should be avoided, since it is bad guidance. For example, you have to get to Tier 3 before you document policies, standards or procedures. That means a business at Tier 1 and Tier 2 would be considered negligent for failing to meet “reasonable expectations” for a security program. This is an example of “the path to hell is paved with good intentions” so that component of NIST CSF should be avoided.
Cybersecurity Policies, Standards & Procedures Are Meant To Address Your Compliance Needs
It is important to keep in mind that picking a cybersecurity framework is more of a business decision and less of a technical decision since cybersecurity and privacy controls identified in external laws, regulations or frameworks directly influence your organization’s internal policies, standards and procedures.
Policies are established by an organization’s corporate leadership establishes “management’s intent” for cybersecurity and data protection requirements that are necessary to support the organization’s overall strategy and mission.
Control Objectives identify the technical, administrative and physical protections that are generally tied to a law, regulation, industry framework or contractual obligation.
Standards provide organization-specific, quantifiable requirements for cybersecurity and data protection.
Guidelines are additional guidance that is recommended, but not mandatory.
Procedures (also known as Control Activities) establish the defined practices or steps that are performed to meet to implement standards and satisfy controls / control objectives.
Build With A Hierarchical Approach To Cybersecurity & Privacy Documentation
The Hierarchical Cybersecurity Governance Framework (HCGF) is the “ComplianceForge Reference Model” of cybersecurity and privacy documentation. This free guide is a documentation model that leverages industry-recognized terminology to logically arrange these documentation components into their rightful order. This model creates an approach to architecting documentation that is concise, scalable and comprehensive. When that is all laid out properly, an organization’s cybersecurity and data protection documentation should be hierarchical and linked from policies all the way through metrics. The swimlane diagram shown below (click for a larger PDF) defines the terminology and demonstrates the linkages between these various documentation components.
It all starts with influencers – these external and internal influencers set the tone to establish what is considered due diligence for cybersecurity & data protection operations.
For external influencers, this includes statutory requirements (laws), regulatory requirements (government regulations) and contractual requirements (legally-binding agreements) that companies must address.
For internal influencers, these are business-driven and the focus is more on management’s desire for consistent, efficient and effective operations:
Alignment with business strategy; and
Meeting business goals & objectives.
Fundamentally, the process of selecting a cybersecurity framework must be driven by what your organization is obligated to comply with from a statutory, regulatory and contractual perspective, since that understanding establishes the minimum set of requirements necessary to:
Avoid being considered negligent by being able to demonstrate evidence of due diligence and due care pertaining to “reasonably-expected” security & privacy practices;
Properly address risk management expectations by having the proper controls to secure your organization’s systems, applications and processes from reasonable threats.
Once you know the minimum requirements you need to meet, it can help narrow down the most appropriate framework. As shown in the “framework spectrum” diagram (shown below) that helps depict how not all frameworks are the same, you need to focus on selecting the most appropriate set of cybersecurity controls (e.g., controls framework) for your organization to align with.
What Documentation Do I Need To Comply With NIST CSF, ISO 27002 or NIST 800-53?
To do NIST CSF, ISO 27002 or NIST 800-53 properly, it takes more than just a set of policies and standards. While those are foundational to building a cybersecurity program aligned with that framework, there is a need for program-specific guidance that helps operationalize those policies and standards (e.g., risk management program, third-party management, vulnerability management, etc.). It is important to understand what is required to be in compliance with NIST CSF vs ISO 27002 vs NIST 800-53, since there are significantly different levels of expectation.
When you start looking at “What should I buy to comply or align with X framework?” it is important to understand what the expectations of the various frameworks entail. When you look at these frameworks from the perspective of a spectrum that spans from weaker to more robust controls coverage, the basic expectation is that there are more requirements as you advance along this spectrum. The chart below helps identify the various ComplianceForge products where they intersect with NIST CSF, ISO 27002, NIST 800-53 and NIST 800-171/CMMC requirements. As depicted in the spectrum graphic at the top of this page, there are less requirements to comply with the NIST Cybersecurity Framework, while ISO 27002 has more requirements. However, ISO 27002 has less requirements than NIST 800-53.
ComplianceForge Products
NIST CSF
ISO 27002
NIST 800-53 r4
NIST 800-171 r1
Cybersecurity & Data Protection Program (CDPP) or Digital Security Program (DSP)
ID.GV-1 [multiple sections]
5.1.1 [multiple sections]
PM-1 [multiple sections]
252.204-7008 252.204-7012 NIST 800-171 (multiple CUI & NFO controls)
When you look at it from a sliding scale of good, better, great or awesome, we have a few options for you to meet your needs and budget to align your company with the NIST Cybersecurity Framework (NIST CSF). The product names you see in the various packages below map into the matrix shown above to show you how that maps into NIST CSF.
When you look at it from a sliding scale of good, better, great or awesome, we have a few options for you to meet your needs and budget to align your company with ISO 27001 / 27002. The product names you see in the various packages below map into the matrix shown above to show you how that maps into ISO 27002.
Good (ISO 27002)
Better (ISO 27002)
Great (ISO 27002)
Awesome (ISO 27002)
CDPP – ISO 27002 Policies & Standards
CDPP + CSOP – ISO 27002 Policies, Standards & Procedures
When you look at it from a sliding scale of good, better, great or awesome, we have a few options for you to meet your needs and budget to align your company with NIST 800-53. The product names you see in the various packages below map into the matrix shown above to show you how that maps into NIST 800-53.
GoogleChrome Books and SSPM is the future of security and Digital Transformation.
Digital Transformation means as much as Zero trust, I prefer to think in terms of Technology solutions rather than Terms that can be manipulate as required by Vendors and Marketing teams. This is also for Traditional Enterprise workloads and End user computing, rather than developing applications or Power Users.
As the complexity of Multi-cloud and access to business environments from any device continues to grow. CISO and CTO, needs to work together to create a strategy for both Digital Transformation and agility and reduce the footprint and exposure. you don’t do that much continuously doing the same playbook. It’s simple, you need to move to SaaS and reduce your Windows Endpoint foot print. So how do you do that.
AzureAD – Users can create Azure AD tenants by Default.
Azure AD & O365 Attack Matrix
The amount of things that are defaulted in the AzureAD/O365 commercial tenants is too much and it’s critical to verify all settings are required as Defaults, it is also important to monitor updates. As a example;
Users can create Azure AD tenants Disable this setting, it was available by default but now there is a toggle to disable it!;
Brain dump of Cyber Security interview questions. btw, for any interviewer, you should allow the candidate to ask you 3 technical questions in return.
One Day, One Step at a Time.
Some advice; I was recently out of work and going to multiple interviews for Email Security, to Micro segmentation to Identify Architect, If you are in this situation, it is very difficult, as you are doing multiple interviews per day and may need to do multiple technical interviews and even presentations and even proposals. This is not an ideal situation, getting a job is very difficult. The best way is to apply for a single job and really research exactly the requirements and prepare, which takes allot of investment in time and of course, there is always luck of the draw. So take One day and One step at a time.
I found this very useful for Webcam interviews;
Cyber Security Interview Questions
What is the ‘Shadow file’ and location
The shadow file is probably one of the most important files on your linux system, and that’s because it stores the actual encrypted passwords for everything on your system. The shadow file is located at /etc/shadow, and is only accessible to the root user. https://linuxhint.com/shadow-password-file-linux/
Explain ASEP keys
Auto-Start Extensibility Points (ASEPs is specific areas within in the Windows Operating System, that can be used by Malware to maintain persistence such as the Run key inside the registry;
The Windows security subsystem is a set of components that manage and enforce the security policy for a computer or domain. The Local Security Authority (LSA) is the main component responsible for local security policy and user authentication. The LSA includes multiple dynamic link libraries (DLLs) associated with various other security functions, all of which run in the context of the LSA Subsystem Service (LSASS) lsass.exe process.
The registry is a hierarchical database that contains data that is critical for the operation of Windows and the applications and services that run on Windows. The data is structured in a tree format. Each node in the tree is called a key. Each key can contain both subkeys and data entries called values. Sometimes, the presence of a key is all the data that an application requires; other times, an application opens a key and uses the values associated with the key. A key can have any number of values, and the values can be in any form. For more information, see Registry Value Types and Registry Element Size Limits.
AAA stands for authentication, authorization, and accounting. AAA is a framework for intelligently controlling access to computer resources, enforcing policies, auditing usage, and providing the information necessary to bill for services. These processes working in concert are important for effective network management and security.
Authentication Authentication provides a method of identifying a user, typically by having the user enter a valid username and password before access to the network is granted. Authentication is based on each user having a unique set of login credentials for gaining network access. The AAA server compares a user’s authentication credentials with other user credentials stored in a database; in this case, that database is Active Directory. If the user’s login credentials match, the user is granted access to the network. If the credentials don’t match, authentication fails and network access is denied.
Authorization Following authentication, a user must gain authorization for doing certain tasks. After logging in to a system, for instance, the user may try to issue commands. The authorization process determines whether the user has the authority to issue such commands. Simply put, authorization is the process of enforcing policies—determining what types or qualities of activities, resources, or services a user is permitted. Usually authorization occurs within the context of authentication. After you have authenticated a user, they may be authorized for different types of access or activity. As it relates to network authentication via RADIUS and 802.1x, authorization can be used to determine what VLAN, Access Control List (ACL), or user role that the user belongs to.
Accounting The final piece in the AAA framework is accounting, which monitors the resources a user consumes during network access. This can include the amount of system time or the amount of data sent and received during a session. Accounting is carried out by logging session statistics and usage information. It is used for authorization control, billing, trend analysis, resource utilization, and planning for the data capacity required for business operations. ClearPass Policy Manager functions as the accounting server and receives accounting information about the user from the Network Access Server (NAS). The NAS must be configured to use ClearPass Policy Manager as an accounting server, and it is up to the NAS to provide accurate accounting information to ClearPass Policy Manager.
What is a Three-Way Handshake?
The TCP handshake
TCP uses a three-way handshake to establish a reliable connection. The connection is full duplex, and both sides synchronize (SYN) and acknowledge (ACK) each other. The exchange of these four flags is performed in three steps: SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK.
Risk can be defined as the ‘effect of uncertainty on objectives’. Risk is important as it assists organisations in setting strategy, achieving objectives and making informed decisions. Taking risks is fundamental to organisations
Cybersecurity risk management is a strategic approach to prioritizing threats. Organizations implement cybersecurity risk management in order to ensure the most critical threats are handled in a timely manner. This approach helps identify, analyze, evaluate, and address threats based on the potential impact each threat poses.
A mentee reached out for CISSP help. Sharing my notes on the high level processes to measure Organizational Risk and Quantify Impact.
Effective Risk Management enables businesses to proactively prioritize risk treatments and maximize returns on security investments. Scale is a challenge.
How to Measure Risk:
1. Determine Asset Values: The value of an asset is more than the out-of-pocket dollars required to obtain the assets.
• Determining Asset values is a foundational part of the overall risk vs. impact analysis process that helps an organization understand the possible financial impact on the enterprise concerning a specific threat.
• Qualitative – subjective values based on assets worth to the organization • Quantitative- values based on assets cost
2. Measure: • The initial and ongoing cost to the enterprise for purchasing/licensing/ developing and supporting the environment or information asset
• An assets value to the enterprise production operations R&D in core business viability
• An asset’s value established on the external marketplace and the estimated value of the intellectual property such as trade secrets, patents, copyright
• An asset’s value to an adversary • Cost to replace if the asset is lost • Operational costs incurred if unavailable • Liability issues if the asset is compromised
3. Perform Security Risk Analysis Steps: • Assign a value to information and assets • Estimate potential loss of risk • Perform threat analysis • Remedial measures to counteract each risk • Reduce, Assign, Transfer, or Accept the risk 4. Determine Financial Impact & Investment Threshold:
• Impact analysis is concerned with calculating the potential financial impact of threats to various assets.
A. Determine exposure factor: Single loss expectancy * asset value = exposure
The exposure is the percent of an asset loss caused by an identified threat. E.G.- If a hurricane hits my business office and generates 50% destruction, then the exposure factor is 50%
B. Determine Single Loss Expectancy (SLE):
Asset Value * Exposure factor = SLE
For the business office example, the SLE would be 1billion x .05 = 500 million
C. Determine Annualized Rate of Occurrence: The Annualized rate of occurrence is the possibility of a specific threat occurring within a year. If a hurricane season is only 20% of a year, then the annualized rate of occurrence is 20%
D. Determine Annualized Loss Expectancy:
To calculate the annualized loss expectancy for a company per year, multiply the SLE by the annualized rate of occurrence.
Example: SLE (500 million) x annualized rate of occurrence (.20) = 100 million ALE
5. Business Insight for Risk Impact & Mitigation Cost Threshold
* ALE enables cost/benefit analysis when choosing mitigating actions to reduce potential loss.
*In the example, spending more than $100M on annual risk mitigation would be a waste of $
HTTP sends data over port 80 while HTTPS uses port 443. HTTP operates at application layer, while HTTPS operates at transport layer. No SSL certificates are required for HTTP; with HTTPS, it is required that you have an SSL certificate and a CA signs it.
What is the difference between SSL/TLS What is TLS?
Transport Layer Security (TLS) is the successor protocol to SSL. TLS is an improved version of SSL. It works in much the same way as the SSL, using encryption to protect the transfer of data and information. The two terms are often used interchangeably in the industry although SSL is still widely used. When you buy an ‘SSL’ certificate from DigiCert, you can of course use it with both SSL and TLS protocols.
What is TCP? Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is connection-oriented, meaning once a connection has been established, data can be transmitted in two directions. TCP has built-in systems to check for errors and to guarantee data will be delivered in the order it was sent, making it the perfect protocol for transferring information like still images, data files, and web pages. But while TCP is instinctively reliable, its feedback mechanisms also result in a larger overhead, translating to greater use of the available bandwidth on your network.
What is UDP? User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a simpler, connectionless Internet protocol wherein error-checking and recovery services are not required. With UDP, there is no overhead for opening a connection, maintaining a connection, or terminating a connection; data is continuously sent to the recipient, whether or not they receive it. Although UDP isn’t ideal for sending an email, viewing a webpage, or downloading a file, it is largely preferred for real-time communications like broadcast or multitask network transmission.
An advanced persistent threat (APT) is a broad term used to describe an attack campaign in which an intruder, or team of intruders, establishes an illicit, long-term presence on a network in order to mine highly sensitive data.
An advanced persistent threat is a stealthy threat actor, typically a nation state or state-sponsored group, which gains unauthorized access to a computer network and remains undetected for an extended period
Indicator of compromise or IOC is a forensic term that refers to the evidence on a device that points out to a security breach. In this article, we discussed how IOC can be useful for your cyber security team.
What is DNS? What happens DNS when you hit www.google.com on browser Explain DNS name resolutions? The Domain Name System
(DNS) is the phonebook of the Internet. Humans access information online through domain names, like nytimes.com or espn.com. Web browsers interact through Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. DNS translates domain names to IP addresses so browsers can load Internet resources. –
Each device connected to the Internet has a unique IP address which other machines use to find the device. DNS servers eliminate the need for humans to memorize IP addresses such as 192.168.1.1 (in IPv4), or more complex newer alphanumeric IP addresses such as 2400:cb00:2048:1::c629:d7a2 (in IPv6).
Authoritative DNS is the system that takes an address, like google.com, and provides an answer about the resources in that zone.
The purpose of Recursive DNS, as we saw in step 2.1 above, is to hold information about a host for the given amount of time specified by that record’s Time To Live (TTL) Value. Recursion can happen at a number of different levels, depending on the network.
Recursive DNS exists primarily to help reduce authoritative lookups, and increase the speed at which Internet users are able to access the resources they most frequently use. While ISPs provide this as a free service, there are a number of public DNS recursives that can be used as an alternative. OpenDNS and Google DNS are examples of free, public recursive servers – because they are more widely used, the recursion is aggregated globally and may result in an increase in performance when browsing the web.
What is SASE?
What is DNS Tunnelling?
How does SAML work?
SAML works by exchanging user information, such as logins, authentication state, identifiers, and other relevant attributes between the identity and service provider. As a result, it simplifies and secures the authentication process as the user only needs to log in once with a single set of authentication credentials.
Which Operating Systems would you use for different use cases/requirements?
FreeBSD – Secure / Front End Webservers + NGENIX UbuntuLTS – General Desktop OS MacOS/Windows – General User Desktop OS CentOS/RedHat – Servers AIX/System Z – Mission Critical
What is the AWS Shared Responsibility Model?
What is the AWS Shared Responsibility Model?
If you where going to develop a Prototype MVP application that needs to scale-out to millions of users quickly, how would you do it?
I would build it on top of GCP as that is IMO, the best Cloud Platform, using Serverless Code connecting to GCP Database backend and front end using either Flutter and Backend using Python, or use a existing framework such as Joomla CMS or WordPress as the basis for a MVP. I would also use QT for multi-os application and for a Machine Learning platform, use ELK stack.
What is a ODDA Loop?
What is a CIA Triad?
Confidentiality is roughly equivalent to privacy. Confidentiality measures are designed to prevent sensitive information from unauthorized access attempts. It is common for data to be categorized according to the amount and type of damage that could be done if it fell into the wrong hands. More or less stringent measures can then be implemented according to those categories. Integrity involves maintaining the consistency, accuracy and trustworthiness of data over its entire lifecycle. Data must not be changed in transit, and steps must be taken to ensure data cannot be altered by unauthorized people (for example, in a breach of confidentiality). Availability means information should be consistently and readily accessible for authorized parties. This involves properly maintaining hardware and technical infrastructure and systems that hold and display the information.
What is the Gartner SOC Visibility Triad
Explain Chain of Custody?
Chain of Custody is a term referring to the order and way physical or electronic evidence in investigations is handled.
It is important to show that all evidence was handled in line with best practice procedures, by documenting all relevant details in the ‘Chain of Custody’ document.
Items found to form part of an inadequate or inaccurate chain of custody document may be deemed inadmissible.
Explain the difference between BCP/DRP?
BCDR
A business continuity plan (BCP) is a document that outlines how a business will continue operating during an unplanned disruption in service. It’s more comprehensive than a disaster recovery plan and contains contingencies for business processes, assets, human resources and business partners – every aspect of the business that might be affected.
A disaster recovery plan (DRP) is a documented, structured approach that describes how an organization can quickly resume work after an unplanned incident. A DRP is an essential part of a business continuity plan (BCP). It is applied to the aspects of an organization that depend on a functioning information technology (IT) infrastructure. A DRP aims to help an organization resolve data loss and recover system functionality so that it can perform in the aftermath of an incident, even if it operates at a minimal level.
What is RPO/RTO?
Recovery Point Objective (RPO) describes the interval of time that might pass during a disruption before the quantity of data lost during that period exceeds the Business Continuity Plan’s maximum allowable threshold or “tolerance.”
Recovery Time Objective (RTO) is the duration of time and a service level within which a business process must be restored after a disaster in order to avoid unacceptable consequences associated with a break in continuity. In other words, the RTO is the answer to the question: “How much time did it take to recover after notification of business process disruption?“
What is the first things you would do for a Cyber Security Strategy?
1. Create an Incident Response Plane and DFIR retainer for any Incidents (CSIRT). 2. Create an IT asset register? 3. Create Cyber Awareness Training? 4. Create a Cyber Strategy and Roadmap based on a BIA? 5. Establish 24/7 Detection and Response capability? 6. Ensure your BCP/DRP and Backups work.
What Cyber security Polcies and Frameworks are you familiar with?
Regulations / Governance / Law Australian Privacy Principles PCS-DSS (Layer 1, Layer 2, Layer 3 and Layer 4) HIPPA SOX FISMA SOX/ FISMA FedRamp
CVE stands for Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures. CVE is a glossary that classifies vulnerabilities. The glossary analyzes vulnerabilities and then uses the Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS) to evaluate the threat level of a vulnerability. A CVE score is often used for prioritizing the security of vulnerabilities.
The CVE glossary is a project dedicated to tracking and cataloging vulnerabilities in consumer software and hardware. It is maintained by the MITRE Corporation with funding from the US Division of Homeland Security. Vulnerabilities are collected and cataloged using the Security Content Automation Protocol (SCAP).
Cross site scripting (XSS) is an attack in which an attacker injects malicious executable scripts into the code of a trusted application or website. Attackers often initiate an XSS attack by sending a malicious link to a user and enticing the user to click it.
What is a Drive by download?
Lurk, a cybercriminal group infamous for their stealthy and fileless infection techniques, exploited web browser vulnerabilities for their drive-by download attacks. A cyberespionage group called Patchwork (or Dropping Elephant), used drive-by download techniques — such as creating a fake social video website called YoukuTudou to target victims in China — to download and execute an xRAT Trojan under the guise of an Adobe Flash Player update.
Explain SQL Injection How do you stop SQL injection?
Structured Query Language (SQL*) Injection is a code injection technique used to modify or retrieve data from SQL databases. By inserting specialized SQL statements into an entry field, an attacker is able to execute commands that allow for the retrieval of data from the database, the destruction of sensitive data, or other manipulative behaviors.
Escape All User Supplied Input – When writing SQL, specific characters or words have particular meaning. For example, the ‘*’ character means “any” and the words “OR” is a conditional. To circumvent users who enter these characters either accidentally or maliciously into an API request to the database, user supplied input can be escaped. Escaping a character is the way of telling the database not to parse it as a command or conditional but instead treat it as literal input. Use of Stored Procedures – Although not a robust security strategy by itself, stored procedures can help limit the risk associated with SQL injection. By properly limiting the permissions of the database account running SQL queries, even non-robust application code that is vulnerable to SQL injection will lack the permissions necessary to manipulate unrelated database tables. Stored procedures may also check the type of input parameters, preventing data to be input that violates the type the field is designed to receive. In instances where static queries are insufficient, stored procedures are typically to be avoided. Enforce Least Privilege – As a general rule, in all instances where a website needs to use dynamic SQL, it is important to reduce the exposure to SQL injection by limiting permissions to the narrowest scope required to execute the relevant query. In its most obvious form, this means that an administrative account should in no instance be executing SQL commands as a result of a API call from an unauthorized request. While stored procedures are best utilized for static queries, enforcing least privilege can help reduce the risks of dynamic SQL queries. https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/security/threats/sql-injection/
What is CSRF?
Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF) is an attack that forces an end user to execute unwanted actions on a web application in which they’re currently authenticated. XSS Cross Site ScriptingCross-Site Scripting (XSS) attacks are a type of injection, in which malicious scripts are injected into otherwise benign and trusted websites. XSS attacks occur when an attacker uses a web application to send malicious code, generally in the form of a browser side script, to a different end user. Flaws that allow these attacks to succeed are quite widespread and occur anywhere a web application uses input from a user within the output it generates without validating or encoding it.
Explain Durability?
Building a Corporate Security Program From The Ground Up?
Stateless firewalls are designed to protect networks based on static information such as source and destination. Whereas stateful firewalls filter packets based on the full context of a given network connection, Stateless firewalls filter packets based on the individual packets themselves
What is DMARC?
Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting and Conformation)
What is AuditD?
Auditd is the userspace component to the Linux Auditing System. Auditd is short for Linux Audit Daemon. In Linux, daemon is referred to as background running service and there is a ‘d’ attached at the end of the application service as it runs in the background. The job of auditd is to collect and write log files of audit to the disk as a background service
What is the difference between Truncate database and drop table?
quickly removes all data from a table, typically bypassing a number of integrity enforcing mechanisms. dropping a table. Deleting a table will result in loss of complete information stored in the table
Explain Public Key Cryptography (PKI)
Public key infrastructure (PKI) governs the issuance of digital certificates to protect sensitive data, provide unique digital identities for users, devices and applications and secure end-to-end communications.
What is the meaning of TCP and IP in the term TCP/IPTransmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP is also used as a communications protocol in a private computer network (an intranet or extranet).
MITM attack happens when a communication between two parties is intruded or intercepted by an outside entity. – Use encryption (public key encryption) between both parties – Avoid using open wi-fi networks. – Use HTTPS, forced TLS or VPN.
What are Linux C groups Control groups, usually referred to as cgroups, are a Linux kernel feature which allow processes to be organized into hierarchical groups whose usage of various types of resources can then be limited and monitored. The kernel’s cgroup interface is provided through a pseudo-filesystem called cgroupfs. Grouping is implemented in the core cgroup kernel code, while resource tracking and limits are implemented in a set of per-resource-type subsystems (memory, CPU, and so on).
What is the Shadow Group?
The shadow group allows system programs which require access the ability to read the /etc/shadow file. No users should be assigned to the shadow group.
1. Broken Access Links 2. Cryptographic Failures 3, Injection 4. Insecure Design 5. Security Misconfiguration 6. Vulnerable and Outdate Components 7. Software and Data Integrity Failures 8. Security Logging and Monitoring. 9. Server-Side Request Forgery (SSRF) 10. XML External Entities (XXE) 11. Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) 12. A01:2021-Broken Access Control moves up from the fifth position to the category with the most serious web application security risk; the contributed data indicates that on average, 3.81% of applications tested had one or more Common Weakness Enumerations (CWEs) with more than 318k occurrences of CWEs in this risk category. The 34 CWEs mapped to Broken Access Control had more occurrences in applications than any other category. A02:2021-Cryptographic Failures shifts up one position to #2, previously known as A3:2017-Sensitive Data Exposure, which was broad symptom rather than a root cause. The renewed name focuses on failures related to cryptography as it has been implicitly before. This category often leads to sensitive data exposure or system compromise. A03:2021-Injection slides down to the third position. 94% of the applications were tested for some form of injection with a max incidence rate of 19%, an average incidence rate of 3.37%, and the 33 CWEs mapped into this category have the second most occurrences in applications with 274k occurrences. Cross-site Scripting is now part of this category in this edition. A04:2021-Insecure Design is a new category for 2021, with a focus on risks related to design flaws. If we genuinely want to “move left” as an industry, we need more threat modeling, secure design patterns and principles, and reference architectures. An insecure design cannot be fixed by a perfect implementation as by definition, needed security controls were never created to defend against specific attacks. A05:2021-Security Misconfiguration moves up from #6 in the previous edition; 90% of applications were tested for some form of misconfiguration, with an average incidence rate of 4.5%, and over 208k occurrences of CWEs mapped to this risk category. With more shifts into highly configurable software, it’s not surprising to see this category move up. The former category for A4:2017-XML External Entities (XXE) is now part of this risk category. A06:2021-Vulnerable and Outdated Components was previously titled Using Components with Known Vulnerabilities and is #2 in the Top 10 community survey, but also had enough data to make the Top 10 via data analysis. This category moves up from #9 in 2017 and is a known issue that we struggle to test and assess risk. It is the only category not to have any Common Vulnerability and Exposures (CVEs) mapped to the included CWEs, so a default exploit and impact weights of 5.0 are factored into their scores. A07:2021-Identification and Authentication Failures was previously Broken Authentication and is sliding down from the second position, and now includes CWEs that are more related to identification failures. This category is still an integral part of the Top 10, but the increased availability of standardized frameworks seems to be helping. A08:2021-Software and Data Integrity Failures is a new category for 2021, focusing on making assumptions related to software updates, critical data, and CI/CD pipelines without verifying integrity. One of the highest weighted impacts from Common Vulnerability and Exposures/Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVE/CVSS) data mapped to the 10 CWEs in this category. A8:2017-Insecure Deserialization is now a part of this larger category. A09:2021-Security Logging and Monitoring Failures was previously A10:2017-Insufficient Logging & Monitoring and is added from the Top 10 community survey (#3), moving up from #10 previously. This category is expanded to include more types of failures, is challenging to test for, and isn’t well represented in the CVE/CVSS data. However, failures in this category can directly impact visibility, incident alerting, and forensics. A10:2021-Server-Side Request Forgery is added from the Top 10 community survey (#1). The data shows a relatively low incidence rate with above average testing coverage, along with above-average ratings for Exploit and Impact potential. This category represents the scenario where the security community members are telling us this is important, even though it’s not illustrated in the data at this time.
What is eBFP?
BPF is a revolutionary technology with origins in the Linux kernel that can run sandboxed programs in an operating system kernel. It is used to safely and efficiently extend the capabilities of the kernel without requiring to change kernel source code or load kernel modules. Historically, the operating system has always been an ideal place to implement observability, security, and networking functionality due to the kernel’s privileged ability to oversee and control the entire system. At the same time, an operating system kernel is hard to evolve due to its central role and high requirement towards stability and security. The rate of innovation at the operating system level has thus traditionally been lower compared to functionality implemented outside of the operating system. https://ebpf.io/
Ring 0 (most privileged) and 3 (least privileged) Ring 0 is accessible to the kernel, which is a central part of most operating systems and can access everything. Code running here is said to be running in kernel mode. Processes running in kernel mode can affect the entire system; if anything fails here, it will probably result in a system shutdown. This ring has direct access to the CPU and the system memory, so any instructions requiring the use of either will be executed here.
Ring 3, the least priviliged ring, is accessible to user processes that are running in user mode. This is where most applications running on your computer will reside. This ring has no direct access to the CPU or memory, and therefore has to pass any instructions involving these to ring 0.
HTTP is a stateless (or non-persistent) protocol. Each request is treated by its own. A request will not know what was done in the previous requests. The protocol is designed to be stateless for simplicity. However, some Internet applications, such as e-commerce shopping cart, require the state information to be passed one request to the next. Since the protocol is stateless, it is the responsibility of the application to maintain state information within their application. A few techniques can be used to maintain state information across multiple HTTP requests, namely,
– Cookie – Hidden fields of the HTML form. – URL rewriting.
SSL/TLS uses both asymmetric and symmetric encryption to protect the confidentiality and integrity of data-in-transit. Asymmetric encryption is used to establish a secure session between a client and a server, and symmetric encryption is used to exchange data within the secured session. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cuR05y_2Gxc
What is Asymmetric or Symmetric Encryption?
Symmetric encryption uses a single key that needs to be shared among the people who need to receive the message while asymmetric encryption uses a pair of public key and a private key to encrypt and decrypt messages when communicating.
MD5 (technically called MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm) is a cryptographic hash function whose main purpose is to verify that a file has been unaltered.
Instead of confirming two sets of data are identical by comparing the raw data, MD5 does this by producing a checksum on both sets and then comparing the checksums to verify they’re the same.
MD5 has certain flaws, so it isn’t useful for advanced encryption applications, but it’s perfectly acceptable to use it for standard file verifications.
Explain sessions hijacking and the effect of 2 factor authentication?
MITRE ATT&CK® is a globally-accessible knowledge base of adversary tactics and techniques based on real-world observations. The ATT&CK knowledge base is used as a foundation for the development of specific threat models and methodologies in the private sector, in government, and in the cybersecurity product and service community.
What’s the difference between a policy, process and procedure?
Zero trust network access (ZTNA) is a product or service that creates an identity- and context-based, logical access boundary around an application or set of applications. The applications are hidden from discovery, and access is restricted via a trust broker to a set of named entities.
What is the difference between encoding, encryption and hashing?
Encoding: Reversible transformation of data format, used to preserve the usability of data. Hashing: A one-way summary of data that cannot be reversed and is used to validate the integrity of data. Encryption: Secure encoding of data used to protect the confidentiality of data.
What is a rainbow table?
A rainbow table attack is a password cracking method that uses a special table (a “rainbow table”) to crack the password hashes in a database
If you had to encrypt and compress data during transmition, what would you do first?
You should compress before encrypting. Encryption turns your data into high-entropy data, usually indistinguishable from a random stream. Compression relies on patterns in order to gain any size reduction.
Cross site request forgery (CSRF), also known as XSRF, Sea Surf or Session Riding, is an attack vector that tricks a web browser into executing an unwanted action in an application to which a user is logged in.
In a public-key cryptography, you have a public and a private key, and you often perform both encryption and signing functions. Which key is used for which purpose?
Kubernetes automates operational tasks of container management and includes built-in commands for deploying applications, rolling out changes to your applications, scaling your applications up and down to fit changing needs, monitoring your applications, and more—making it easier to manage applications.
Kubernetes networking allows Kubernetes components to communicate with each other and with other applications. The Kubernetes platform is different from other networking platforms because it is based on a flat network structure that eliminates the need to map host ports to container ports. The Kubernetes platform provides a way to run distributed systems, sharing machines between applications without dynamically allocating ports.
Kubernetes is a portable, extensible, open source platform for managing containerized workloads and services, that facilitates both declarative configuration and automation. It has a large, rapidly growing ecosystem. Kubernetes services, support, and tools are widely available. The name Kubernetes originates from Greek, meaning helmsman or pilot. K8s as an abbreviation results from counting the eight letters between the “K” and the “s”. Google open-sourced the Kubernetes project in 2014. Kubernetes combines over 15 years of Google’s experience running production workloads at scale with best-of-breed ideas and practices from the community.
Containers uses a Flat network.
https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/overview/
What are Helm Charts
Helm helps you manage Kubernetes applications — Helm Charts help you define, install, and upgrade even the most complex Kubernetes application. Charts are easy to create, version, share, and publish — so start using Helm and stop the copy-and-paste. Helm is a graduated project in the CNCF and is maintained by the Helm community.
Benjamin Delpy originally created Mimikatz as a proof of concept to show Microsoft that its authentication protocols were vulnerable to an attack. Instead, he inadvertently created one of the most widely used and downloaded threat actor tools of the past 20 years.
https://www.varonis.com/blog/what-is-mimikatz#do
What is side car?
A sidecar is a separate container that runs alongside an application container in a Kubernetes pod – a helper application of sorts. Typically, the sidecar is responsible for offloading functions required by all apps within a service mesh – SSL/mTLS, traffic routing, high availability, and so on –
Familiarise your self with Flare-On 9 Challenge Solutions
Difference between TLS version 1.2 and 1.3. Explain the DNS flow when any website is accessed on browser.
TLS 1.3 offers several improvements over earlier versions, most notably a faster TLS handshake and simpler, more secure cipher suites. Zero Round-Trip Time (0-RTT) key exchanges further streamline the TLS handshake. Together, these changes provide better performance and stronger security.
A Faster TLS Handshake TLS encryption and SSL decryption require CPU time and add latency to network communications, somewhat degrading performance. Under TLS 1.2, the initial handshake was carried out in clear text, meaning that even it needed to be encrypted and decrypted. Given that a typical handshake involved 5 – 7 packets exchanged between the client and server, this added considerable overhead to the connection. Under version 1.3, server certificate encryption was adopted by default, making it possible for a TLS handshake to be performed with 0 – 3 packets, reducing or eliminating this overhead and allowing faster, more responsive connections. Simpler, Stronger Cipher Suites In addition to reducing the number of packets to be exchanged during the TLS handshake, version 1.3 has also shrunk the size of the cipher suites used for encryption. In TLS 1.2 and earlier versions, the use of ciphers with cryptographic weaknesses had posed potential security vulnerabilities. TLS 1.3 includes support only for algorithms that currently have no known vulnerabilities, including any that do not support Perfect Forward Secrecy (PFS). The update has also removed the ability to perform “renegotiation,” in which a client and server that already have a TLS connection can negotiate new parameters and generate new keys, a function that can increase risk. Zero Round-Trip Time (0-RTT) As with SSL, TLS relies on key exchanges to establish a secure session. In earlier versions, keys could be exchanged during the handshake using one of two mechanisms: a static RSA key, or a Diffie-Hellman key. In TLS 1.3, RSA has been removed, along with all static (non-PFS) key exchanges, while retaining ephemeral Diffie-Hellman keys. In addition to eliminating the security risk posed by a static key, which can compromise security if accessed illicitly, relying exclusively on the Diffie-Hellman family allows the client to send the requisite randoms and inputs needed for key generation during its “hello.” By eliminating an entire round-trip on the handshake, this saves time and improves overall site performance. In addition, when accessing a site that has been visited previously, a client can send data on the first message to the server by leveraging pre-shared keys (PSK) from the prior session—thus “zero round-trip time” (0-RTT).
o transfer a packet from source to destination, both the MAC address and IP address of the destination should be known. If the destination MAC address is not present then ARP will resolve this issue first then the packet will be delivered to a destination host. There are simple rules for a packet flow in a network:
If the destination host is present in the same network as the source host then the packet will be delivered directly to the destination host using MAC address. Within a network, the packet will be delivered on the basis of MAC address. MAC address never crosses its broadcast domain. Now, first, we have to take an idea about ARP.
Perfect Forward Secrecy (PFS), also called forward secrecy (FS), refers to an encryption system that changes the keys used to encrypt and decrypt information frequently and automatically. This ongoing process ensures that even if the most recent key is hacked, a minimal amount of sensitive data is exposed. Web pages, calling apps, and messaging apps all use encryption tools with perfect forward secrecy that switch their keys as often as each call or message in a conversation, or every reload of an encrypted web page. This way, the loss or theft of one decryption key does not compromise any additional sensitive information—including additional keys.
Default no configuration settings – No WaF protection at all. Simple URL restriction policy – Restrictions for URL access only. Simple URL restrictions & parameter checking – URL restriction and parameter inspection. Simple URL restrictions & parameter checking for basic HTTP traffic – All the above with specific malicious traffic inspection (this will be listed below in the attack types). Simple URL restrictions & parameter checking for basic JSON/SOAP specific traffic – Same as the above, however, may also be required if your application uses specific web services. File upload checking – finally, file upload facilities should be inspected for malicious content. Popular attack signatures – encoded and non-encoded SQL injection, XSS, OS Injection, LDAP Injection, XML Injection, Path Traversal, Local File Inclusion, Remote File Inclusion etc. Header manipulation techniques – attacking cookie/referer/host headers etc. JSON/SOAP schema bypass techniques. Masked data – shikata_ga_nai and Base64 encoding etc. File scanning manipulation – masked and unmasked anti-virus and malware signatures. Charecter limit oversights Finger printing WAF SQL injection, Cross-Site Scripting (XSS), buffer overflows, file inclusion attacks https://owasp.org/www-pdf-archive/OWASP_Stammtisch_Frankfurt_WAF_Profiling_and_Evasion.pdf
What is the MS GINA
Winlogon, the GINA, and network providers are the parts of the interactive logon model. The interactive logon procedure is normally controlled by Winlogon, MSGina.dll, and network providers. To change the interactive logon procedure, MSGina.dll can be replaced with a customized GINA DLL
Explain how a VPN works?
Explain Threat Modellingl Explain STRIDE Explain DevSecOps and SDLC Explain what is a Security Strategy What is BIA What is Risk Management? What is FIRST method?
Threat Modelling: Threat modeling is a systematic approach used to identify, assess, and mitigate potential threats and vulnerabilities in a system, application, or process. It involves analyzing the system’s architecture, identifying potential threats, and evaluating their potential impact. The goal is to proactively identify and address security risks, enabling organizations to design and implement effective security controls.
STRIDE: STRIDE is an acronym that represents different categories of threats used in threat modeling. It stands for:
Spoofing: An attacker impersonates a legitimate user or system to gain unauthorized access.
Tampering: Unauthorized modification or alteration of data, code, or system components.
Repudiation: The inability to prove or disprove an action or event, often used by attackers to deny their involvement.
Information Disclosure: Unauthorized access to sensitive or confidential information.
Denial of Service: Disrupting or disabling the availability or functionality of a system or service.
Elevation of Privilege: An attacker gains unauthorized privileges or elevated access rights.
By considering each of these threat categories during threat modeling, organizations can identify potential security weaknesses and develop appropriate countermeasures.
DevSecOps and SDLC: DevSecOps is an approach that integrates security practices into the software development lifecycle (SDLC) from the beginning, rather than treating security as an afterthought. It emphasizes collaboration between development, operations, and security teams to ensure that security considerations are addressed at every stage of the software development process.
The SDLC refers to the series of phases and activities involved in developing software, from conception to retirement. It typically includes requirements gathering, design, development, testing, deployment, and maintenance. When security is incorporated into the SDLC, it ensures that security measures are implemented at each stage, reducing vulnerabilities and enhancing overall system security.
Security Strategy: A security strategy is a comprehensive plan that outlines an organization’s approach to managing and mitigating security risks. It includes a set of guiding principles, objectives, and measures to protect critical assets, data, and systems. A security strategy typically covers areas such as risk assessment, incident response, access control, threat prevention, and employee awareness and training.
The strategy is tailored to the organization’s specific needs, considering factors such as industry regulations, business goals, and the threat landscape. It provides a roadmap for implementing security controls and establishes a framework for ongoing monitoring, evaluation, and improvement of security measures.
BIA (Business Impact Analysis): Business Impact Analysis is a process used to identify and evaluate the potential impact of a disruption or incident on critical business operations. It assesses the potential financial, operational, and reputational consequences of various events, such as natural disasters, cyber-attacks, or system failures.
BIA involves identifying key business processes, determining their criticality and dependencies, and estimating the potential impacts of disruptions, including financial losses, customer dissatisfaction, and regulatory non-compliance. The analysis helps prioritize the allocation of resources for disaster recovery planning, business continuity strategies, and risk mitigation efforts.
Risk Management: Risk management is the process of identifying, assessing, and prioritizing risks to minimize their impact on an organization’s objectives. It involves understanding potential threats and vulnerabilities, analyzing their likelihood and potential impact, and developing strategies to mitigate or transfer the risks.
The risk management process typically includes risk identification, risk assessment, risk mitigation planning, risk monitoring, and risk review. It aims to strike a balance between risk reduction and business goals, enabling organizations to make informed decisions and allocate resources effectively to address security threats.
FIRST Method: The FIRST (Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams) method is a framework used for incident response. It provides a structured approach to handling security incidents effectively and efficiently. The FIRST method consists of the following steps:
[1] https://lnkd.in/gkmzQFZ7 Several videos including 2 concerning technical interview questions by Mike Meyers of Total Seminars and Richard Chapman of CyberNow Labs.
[2] https://lnkd.in/g4shgnF8 An article on go-to answers for tricky interview questions; not SOC Analyst specific.
[6] https://lnkd.in/gAAGZHcq What to do before, during, and after an interview from LinkedIn Learning.
[7] https://lnkd.in/gPRKmYd4 I’ve been told I will be asked about OWASP® Foundation Top 10. Here is all you need to answer questions about it from Sucuri Security.